EQUAL CHANCE FOR ALL
AN EQUAL SAY AND AN
The Challenge of Credit
Card Debt for the African
American Middle Class
by: Catherine Ruetschlin, Dēmos
Dedrick Asante-Muhammad, NAACP
December 2013
n a a c p
Roslyn M. Brock,
Chairman, National Board of Directors
Lorraine Miller,
Interim President and CEO
a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s
e NAACP Economic Department thanks Dēmos for their research,
design, analysis, and development of this report. We particularly
thank Catherine Ruetschlin for her contributions to this report.
e NAACP Economic Department acknowledges the leadership of
the National Board of Directors Economic Development Committee
chaired by Leonard James, III and the Housing Committee chaired
by Attorney Gary Bledsoe.
Catherine Ruetschlin would like to thank Amy Traub for her expert
insights and editorial assistance.
a b o u t t h e n a a c p
e mission of the National Association for the Advancement of
Colored People is to ensure the political, educational, social, and
economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate race-
based discrimination.
a b o u t d ē m o s
Dēmos is a public policy organization working for an America where
we all have an equal say in our democracy and an equal chance in
our economy.
d ē m o s m e a n s “t h e p e o p l e .”
It is the root word of democracy, and it reminds us that in America,
the true source of our greatness is the diversity of our people. Our
nation’s highest challenge is to create a democracy that truly empow-
ers people of all backgrounds, so that we all have a say in setting the
policies that shape opportunity and provide for our common future.
To help America meet that challenge, Dēmos is working to reduce
both political and economic inequality, deploying original research,
advocacy, litigation, and strategic communications to create the
America the people deserve.
Table of Contents
1. Key Facts
2. Introduction
3. The CARD Act provides new protections
for African American borrowers
4. The credit card debt basics of African Americans: balance, APR,
and getting by on debt
5. Credit cards fill-in when a public safety net or private assets
are not available, leading households to turn to credit card
debt to finance human capital and other investments
6. African Americans report having worse credit scores
7. African Americans are more likely to be called by bill collectors
and to have seen credit tighten
8. Policy recommendations
1 • THE CHALLENGE OF CREDIT CARD DEBT FOR THE AFRICAN AMERICAN MIDDLE CLASS
Key Facts
I
n the wake of the worst eects of the Great Recession, African Americans, like
Americans as a whole, are getting their balance sheets in order and paying
down credit card debt. But new research from Dēmos’ National Survey on
Credit Card Debt of Low- and Middle-Income Households nds that African
Americans face challenges to their nancial security that are unlike those of white
households. In early 2012 Dēmos surveyed a nationally representative sample of
moderate-income households carrying credit card debt for at least three months;
this paper is part of a series of reports presenting our ndings. e results reveal
that, for many people, credit cards become a “plastic safety net” to replace dwin-
dling incomes, private assets, and social investments, and to help families stretch
their resources when paychecks and savings are not enough. We nd that under
dicult economic conditions many African American families rely on credit
cards to make ends meet or invest in their future—despite paying high interest
rates and suering more negative consequences of debt than other groups.
Among moderate-income households carrying credit card debt:
e African American middle class is paying down debt but still relies on
credit cards to make ends meet.
• African Americans carrying credit card debt owe less than they did in
2008, carrying an average balance of $5,784 today compared to $6,671
in our 2008 survey.
• Similar to white and Latino Americans, 42 percent of African
Americans report using their credit cards for basic living expenses like
rent, mortgage payments, groceries, utilities, or insurance because they
do not have enough money in their checking or savings accounts.
e African American middle class—like the American middle class as a
whole—uses credit cards to make critical investments in their future, includ-
ing for higher education, entrepreneurship, and medical expenses.
• Fiy percent of indebted African American households who incurred
expenses related to sending a child to college report that it contributed
to their current credit card debt.
• Nearly all of the African Americans in our survey who incurred expenses
from starting a new business charged those expenses to a credit card
and have not been able to pay it o: 99 percent of African American
December 2013 • 2
households still carry that expense on their credit card bill compared to
80 percent of whites.
• Forty-three percent of African Americans—similar to whites and
Latinos—reported that out of pocket medical expenses contribute to
their credit card debt.
e African American middle class reports worse credit scores and dierent
causes of poor credit.
• When asked to identify their credit score within a range, just 66% of
African American households report having a credit score of 620 or
above, compared to 85 percent of white households.
• When asked to describe their credit score, only 42 percent of African
American households reported having “good” or “excellent” credit,
compared to 74 percent of white households.
• Among households reporting poor credit, African American households
were more likely to report that late student loan payments or errors
on their credit report contributed to their poor credit scores. White
households were more likely to report that late mortgage payments and
the use of nearly all existing lines of credit contributed to their poor
credit scores.
Moderate-income African Americans have similar rates of default and late
payments to moderate-income white Americans.
• ere were no signicant dierences in the frequency of African
American and white households declaring bankruptcy, being evicted,
or having property repossessed.
• ere were no signicant dierences in the number of times African
Americans and whites were late on credit card payments.
African Americans are more likely to be called by bill collectors, and to have
seen credit tighten.
• Seventy-one percent of African American middle-income households
had been called by bill collectors as a result of their debt, compared to
50 percent of white middle-income households.
• Just over half of African American middle-income households reported
having a credit card cancelled, seeing their credit limit reduced, or being
denied for a credit card in the three years following the recession.
3 • THE CHALLENGE OF CREDIT CARD DEBT FOR THE AFRICAN AMERICAN MIDDLE CLASS
Introduction
M
illions of Americans are still struggling with unemployment, lower
incomes, and the loss of wealth as a consequence of the Great Reces-
sion. But the fallout of the nancial crisis and the burst of the hous-
ing bubble hit people of color especially hard, exposing the relative
vulnerability that persisted among African Americans in the years since the Civil
Rights Movement. Over the 5 years since the nancial crisis African Americans
experienced the greatest economic losses of any group in the country, includ-
ing the highest unemployment rates and the biggest drops in annual income.
In tough economic times like these, many families have to nd a way to sup-
plement their earnings just to maintain a decent standard of living. When the car
breaks down or the furnace leaks, households straining to meet a tight budget
may drain their savings accounts or borrow to make ends meet. But African
Americans have fewer assets to fall back on than other households, owning just
$1 in wealth for every $20 owned by whites. And unlike white households, more
than half of that wealth is held in housing, making it less accessible in times of
emergency. Home equity was also subject to the massive devaluation associated
with the housing bubble’s collapse, resulting in a disproportionate loss of wealth
among African Americans when the bubble burst. In this report, we look at how
moderate-income African Americans are using credit cards in the aermath
of the Great Recession. We nd that under dicult economic conditions, mil-
lions of African American families rely on credit cards to make ends meet – de-
spite paying high interest rates and suering more negative consequences of debt
than other groups.
Credit cards gained importance for household nances over the past generation
as incomes stagnated and many families saw their buying power decline. In the
30 years from 1980 to 2010, while the size of the US economy more than doubled,
the median American household saw income rise by just 10 percent. Even in this
post-Civil Rights era, the advance of racial economic equity was similarly stag-
nant. African American families saw almost no gains in income relative to whites
over the period, barely climbing from earnings at 58 percent of white family in-
comes in 1980, to 61 percent in 2010. At the same time, the wealth divide actually
worsened: according to the Institute for Assets and Social Policy, between 1984
and 2009 the racial wealth gap nearly tripled.
Over the same period, employment security began to wither as new trade rules
increased competition for jobs and employers decreasingly oered benets like
health insurance and traditional pension coverage that used to be an essential part
of hiring agreements. Oshoring in particular proved a severe blow to the African
American middle class, who were disproportionately employed in manufactur-
December 2013 • 4
ing. e debilitation of organized labor, beginning with the policies of Ronald
Reagan, further diminished the number of good jobs available to African Amer-
ican workers. From 1980 to 2010, unemployment for African Americans consis-
tently hovered around twice that of white workers.
In the years since 1980, as economic security for the middle class began to
disappear, the social safety net became increasingly inadequate to cover the new
burdens placed on household budgets. For many people, credit cards became
a “plastic safety net” to replace dwindling income growth, private assets, and
social investments, and to help families stretch their resources when paychecks
and savings were not enough.
e Great Recession intensied both the need for social protections and their
paucity as unemployment soared, incomes declined, and poverty hit record levels.
Critical programs designed to cover workers when the economy fails could not
compensate for the gap le by decades of policies weakening the middle class.
Unemployment insurance, for example, provided coverage for just 24 percent
of unemployed African Americans and 33 percent of unemployed whites in
2010. e average insurance payment in 2010, 2011, and 2012 was just $300
per week. Our survey found that in many cases, the hardship of unemployment
pushed families to take on debt just to get by.
In early 2012, Dēmos conducted a nationally representative survey of Amer-
icans carrying credit card debt in order to better understand what the trends in
borrowing mean for moderate-income households and for people of color today.
e 2012 National Survey on Credit Card Debt of Low- and Middle-Income House-
holds follows two previous Dēmos surveys, conducted in 2005 and 2008. Our re-
sults show that African American households have paid down their credit card
balances since the beginning of the recession, yet still experience nancial pres-
sures that compel them to put critical expenses – like medical bills or the cost
of education – on their credit cards. At the same time, these households were
signicantly more likely than other groups to see their credit tighten following
the nancial crisis. And the consequences of carrying debt fell harder on African
Americans, too; our study reveals that African Americans are far more likely to
be called by bill collectors than white households, and far less likely to report
a good credit score.
e National Survey on Credit Card Debt of Low- and Middle-Income House-
holds is a nationally representative survey of 997 currently indebted households
who have carried a balance on their credit card for at least three months. is
paper is part of a series of reports presenting our ndings from the survey. Afri-
can Americans make up 15 percent of the sample, yielding a margin of error of
11.3 percentage points.
We identied low- and middle-income households based on their relationship
to the county-level median income for each respondent, with those earning be-
tween 50 and 120 percent of the local median included in the survey. e median
5 • THE CHALLENGE OF CREDIT CARD DEBT FOR THE AFRICAN AMERICAN MIDDLE CLASS
income for African American households included in the indebted sample was
$51,450—that is about 2 percent higher than the median household income of
$50,045 for the US population overall in 2011. Relative to the total US population,
the typical African American family in our survey is squarely middle class. In
all, eighty percent of the African American households surveyed earned between
$20,000 and $100,000 per year, placing them within the middle three quintiles of
income distribution for 2011. But due to a signicant wage gap, high unemploy-
ment, and institutional barriers in the labor market, African Americans in gen-
eral face the lowest incomes of all racial and ethnic groups in the country, with a
median income of just $32,229, or less than two-thirds of the median for the total
population. e majority of African Americans in our sample are high earners
relative to the African American population as a whole.
According to the most recent Federal Reserve data, 79 percent of African
American households with a credit card carry credit card debt. With a typical
credit card debt burden of $5,784, the average African American household in our
survey owes credit card companies as much as 13 percent of their annual income.
is study tells their stories, examining the reasons why African Americans turn
to credit cards and the repercussions for their household nances.
Methodology
In February and March of 2012, Dēmos and GfK Knowledge Networks con-
ducted a survey of 1,997 households, including 997 households who had carried
credit card debt for more than three months and 1,000 households who had credit
cards but no credit card debt at the time of the survey. For our survey, moder-
ate-income is dened as a total household income between 50 percent and 120
percent of the local (county-level) median income. All of our respondents were at
least 18 years of age. In order to ensure that the indebted sample captures house-
holds who carry credit card debt, as opposed to those carrying a temporary bal-
ance, we only included households who reported having a balance for more than
three months. e margin of error for the total indebted sample is +/- 3.9 percent-
age points.
An additional sample was used to obtain reliable base sizes for African Amer-
ican and Latino populations. e margin of error for the oversample of 152 Afri-
can American households is +/- 11.3 percentage points. e margin of error for
the oversample of 205 Latino households is +/-9.1 percentage points.
December 2013 • 6
The CARD Act Provides
New Protections for African
American Borrowers
I
n 2008, the US Congress passed the Credit CARD Act, providing security for
consumers by requiring that credit card companies comply with fair and trans-
parent practices for billing and fees. e provisions of the CARD Act require
that monthly credit card statements include key information about debts, in-
cluding how long it will take to pay the entire balance if only paying the minimum
amount due, as well as disclosure of charges from interest and fees. In addition,
the CARD Act eliminated some practices that were harmful to consumers, like
the retroactive application of higher interest rates on existing balances, and the
administration of hair-trigger late fees. Since President Obama signed the CARD
Act into law in May 2009, it has helped African American households in partic-
ular to pay down debt faster and save money by avoiding unreasonable charges.
Our survey found that more than 9 out of 10 indebted African American
households noticed the change on their monthly statements. More than one-third
adjusted their behavior because of the CARD Act to pay down their balances
faster. irty-seven percent of indebted African American households report-
ed paying more toward their credit card balance as a response to information
in their monthly statements mandated by the CARD Act. (See Table 1)
Another way the CARD Act is helping households take control of their nances
is through the reduction of fees for consumers who outspend their credit limits, or
those who make a late payment. Nearly one-third of African American house-
holds report being charged over-the-limit fees less oen since the Act went
into eect. One in four has been charged late fees less oen. (See Table 1)
e CARD Act also limits the ability of credit card companies to increase in-
terest rates, protecting consumers’ existing balances from retroactively-applied
interest rate increases and ensuring that payments will be applied to the balance
with the highest interest rate rst. As a result, households are less likely to see
hikes in their interest rates. Since the passage of the CARD Act, 25 percent of
African American households have experienced a drop in the interest charges
on their credit card. (See Table 1)
7 • THE CHALLENGE OF CREDIT CARD DEBT FOR THE AFRICAN AMERICAN MIDDLE CLASS
.
Impact of the CARD Act on African American Households
Paid more towards credit card balance in the typical month, as a response
to information on credit card statements mandated by the CARD Act
37%
Charged over-the-limit fees less often 32%
Charged late fees less often 25%
Charged less interest on credit cards 25%
e achievements of the CARD Act for African American house-
holds revealed by our survey make it clear that credit card debtors
need complete information and a fair shot at getting on their feet in
order to make decisions that restore their balance sheets. e provi-
sions of the CARD Act have helped move indebted African Amer-
ican households toward greater nancial freedom and show how a
well-designed policy can have real and positive impacts on peoples’
lives.
December 2013 • 8
The credit card debt basics of
African Americans: balance, APR,
and getting by on debt
T
he nancial crisis of 2007-2008 began in the deregulated credit and se-
curities markets, and reverberated into a global recession. As foreclo-
sure rates escalated, unemployment rose, and credit markets constrict-
ed, Americans responded by tightening their belts and paying down
debt. is study looks deeper into that trend, and nds that while Americans did
indeed deleverage—reducing their average credit card balances in the three years
following the Great Recession—many moderate-income households continue to
rely on credit cards in order to make ends meet.
African Americans owe less than they did in 2008, carrying an average bal-
ance of $5,784 today compared to $6,671 in our 2008 survey. But though these
households are paying down debt overall, more than 4 in 10 African American
households with credit card debt have relied on credit cards to pay for basic living
expenses when paychecks and savings were not enough. Forty-two percent of in-
debted African American households report using their credit cards for basic
living expenses like rent, mortgage payments, groceries, utilities, or insurance
because they did not have enough money in their checking or savings accounts,
a rate that is similar to white and Latino Americans (see Figure 1).
Relying on debt to deal with emergencies or just stay aoat comes at a cost.
In order to meet monthly payments and work toward reducing debt loads, the
average African American household spends $368 each month on all credit
cards. And over the years required for a household to pay down their credit cards
entirely, interest charges accumulate. African Americans report steep annual per-
centage rates (APRs) adding to their balances and prolonging their debt. Indebt-
ed African American households report an average APR of 17.7 percent on the
card where they carry the greatest balance. Although they carry lower balances,
the high interest rate paid by African Americans results in greater total interest
charges over the duration of a debt. An African American family carrying the
average debt and APR, and that pays the average monthly payment, would be
charged at least $100 more in interest than an average white family, even though
they borrowed less.
9 • THE CHALLENGE OF CREDIT CARD DEBT FOR THE AFRICAN AMERICAN MIDDLE CLASS
.
Average Debt and APR by Race/Ethnicity*
White African American Latino
Average Credit Card Debt $7,315 $5,784 $6,066
Total Monthly Payment on All Cards $609 $368 $483
Average Annual Percentage Rate
of Card with the Highest Balance
15.8% 17.7% 17.9%
.
Households turn to credit cards to make ends meet*
In the past year, have you used credit cards to pay for basic living expenses, such
as rent, mortgage payments, groceries, utilities, and insurance because you didn’t
have money in your checking or savings account?
*Informaon on the average credit card debt and APR by race is provided in order to illustrate the basic credit card debt burden for
indebted households. However, the dierences in total debt, APR, and use of credit cards for basic living expenses between African
American households and white or Hispanic households fall within the margin of error for our survey and are not considered stascal-
ly signicant.
Latino
African-American
0% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%5% 10%
White
39%
42%
43%
December 2013 • 10
Credit cards fill-in when a
public safety net or private
assets are not available,
leading households to turn
to credit card debt to finance
human capital and other
investments
H
ousehold assets oer a resource for families to weath-
er times of change or uncertainty, as well as the critical
leverage required for families to invest in their futures.
Right now African Americans are facing constraints with
respect to both household assets and income, due to the legacy of dis-
crimination in national asset-building policies that have le African
Americans with just $1 in assets for every $20 owned by whites, and
due to the disproportionate unemployment African Americans have
steadily faced for the last 50 years. African American households on
average have lower incomes and greater rates of unemployment and
underemployment and are less likely than whites to own the most
common asset in the country—a home. e challenges of lower in-
comes, employment, and wealth make it more dicult for African
Americans to leverage long-term investments; in many cases credit
cards may be the best available option. African Americans are more
likely than white households to have credit card debt from the ex-
penses of starting a business, and they are highly likely to carry credit
card debt from paying for a child to attend college and from visiting
the emergency room.
Housing
For those who can aord the investment, the value of home equity
opens a range of possibilities. It is a symbol of middle class success
and the American dream, a secure asset that oers comfort and se-
curity when other problems arise, and a resource that provides the
leverage necessary for making other kinds of investments at lower
costs. Yet according to our survey, just 55 percent of moderate-in-
11 • THE CHALLENGE OF CREDIT CARD DEBT FOR THE AFRICAN AMERICAN MIDDLE CLASS
come indebted African American households are homeowners, compared to
72 percent of white households (see Figure 2). e lower rates of homeownership
among African Americans are both a cause and a symptom of racial asset inequal-
ity. During the post-war era, as the US made signicant investments in the expan-
sion of the middle class, millions of white families enjoyed the public benets of
subsidized housing, suburbanization, and the GI Bill. African Americans instead
faced racially restrictive covenants in private real estate and lending. e prac-
tice of creditor redlining of majority-African American neighborhoods persisted
through the 1980s and targeted predatory lending marred the 1990s and 2000s.
Today, the disparity in homeownership that resulted from these policies continues
to perpetuate racial dierences in other areas, like wealth accumulation, nancial
stability, and access to high quality education and employment opportunities.
Recent research from the Institute on Assets and Social Policy has shown the
racial disparity in homeownership to be the single greatest factor contributing to
wealth inequality, explaining 27 percent of the dierence in the growth of wealth
between white and African American households over the 25 year period from
1984 to 2009. e post-war era policies that oered whites greater opportunities
to build wealth now make it more likely that white families will be able to pass
down an inheritance or oer familial nancial assistance. e disparity is fur-
ther reinforced by dierences in access to credit and the persistence of residential
segregation that lowers the return on investment in African American neighbor-
hoods. As a result of whites’ greater access to familial assets, higher employment
rates, and higher incomes, a white family is likely to purchase a home earlier,
with a larger down-payment and lower fees. e outcome precipitates the average
white family earning equity years before their African American counterparts,
and with higher returns.
.
African Americans in our survey are less likely to own their homes
Do you currently own or rent your home?
Own
Rent
0% 10% 20% 30%
27%
44%
72%
55%
40% 50% 60% 70% 80%
African American
White
December 2013 • 12
College Education
e rapid rise in tuition over the past 30 years exposed a shi in the Amer-
ican vision of higher education from a public investment to a private expense
—one that many households can only nance by going into debt. College enroll-
ment among people of color grew over the same period, so that African American
and Latino students increased in number just as state spending per pupil declined.
e result is a debt-for-diploma system that lays a greater student debt burden
on African Americans than any other group of college graduates. What’s more,
students are not the only ones who end up carrying the burden of the high cost
of attendance. Student debt oen spills over onto parents, eating into savings ac-
counts or destabilizing other assets. African Americans are more likely to avoid
placing higher education debt on parents’ credit cards than white Americans,
yet our study found that still 50 percent of indebted African American house-
holds who incurred expenses related to sending a child to college report that it
contributed to their current credit card debt.
Young African Americans are more likely to take on debt in order to attend
college, and among those who graduate with student loans African Americans
have the highest balances, with student loan debts thousands of dollars higher
than those of white college graduates. In 2008, student loan debt aected 15 per-
cent more African American graduates than white graduates. Eighty percent
of African American college grads took out some amount of loans in order to
attain a higher education, compared to 65 percent of whites. In the same year,
the average African American senior leaving college with student loans owed
$28,692, compared to $24,742 for whites.
Running a Business
Even before the recession stalled incomes and depleted consumer demand,
asset inequality made it much easier for whites to open and run a business than
for African Americans. e latest Census of small business owners occurred in
2007, before the recession and its associated challenges for entrepreneurs. at
survey showed that between 2002 and 2007 African American-owned businesses
grew at triple the overall rate of business ownership. But despite this rapid in-
crease, African American business ownership is still disproportionately small. In
fact, at the last count African Americans ran just seven percent of all small busi-
nesses in the country, and just 2 percent of those with paid employees. Experts
who study the inequality in small business ownership point to a lack of start-up
capital as a signicant factor in African Americans’ disparate rates of business
success. Moreover, poll aer poll of business owners in the US show that access
to capital remains a challenge for small businesses in general, even 5 years aer
the recession’s end. e credit crunch prompted many banks to shi their small
business lending from nancing through loans to small business credit cards,
which can carry a much higher interest rate than traditional loan options. In ad-
13 • THE CHALLENGE OF CREDIT CARD DEBT FOR THE AFRICAN AMERICAN MIDDLE CLASS
dition, these cards are exempt from the provisions of the CARD Act, leaving busi-
ness owners vulnerable to the abuses that the legislation aimed to curtail, such as
retroactively applied interest charges and unfair late fees. Our survey shows that
African Americans are taking out credit card debt in order to nance their busi-
ness ventures, even though it is more expensive than forms of credit available to
populations with more assets to leverage. We found that 99 percent of indebted
moderate-income African American households who had expenses related to
starting or running a business in the past three years still carry that expense on
their credit card bill, compared to 80 percent of whites (see Figure 3). Nearly all
of the African Americans in our survey who incurred business expenses charged
those expenses to a credit card and have not been able to pay it o.
.
Business expenses contribute to credit card debt (percentage of households
that reported expenses related to starting or running a business in the past 3
years) Did starting a new business or running an existing business contribute to
your current credit card debt?
Health Expenses
Barriers to aordable health care, like the skyrocketing cost of services, make
the possibility of health emergencies a signicant source of economic insecurity
for most Americans. Everyone is at risk of an unplanned health problem, and
without the resources to cover the expense a hospital bill can be a burden on -
nances long aer patients recover. Among the moderate-income households we
surveyed, most incurred some out-of-pocket medical expense such as the cost of
a doctor’s appointment or hospital stay, prescription medication, or a dental ex-
pense. Seventy-six percent of indebted households experienced an out-of-pocket
medical expense in the past 3 years, and most of those families continue to carry
the charge on their credit cards (see Figure 4). e median credit card balance
from health expenditures among African American middle class households
that carry the expense on their credit card is $933. e median indebted African
American household with medical debt on their credit cards carries 11 percent of
their total credit card debt due to medical expenses.
African-American
White
0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
80%
99%
100%
December 2013 • 14
.
Medical expenses contribute to credit card debt*
Did out-of-pocket medical expenses in the past 3 years contribute to your current
credit card debt? How much of your current credit card debt is due to out of
pocket medical expenses? (Median dollar amount)
.
Households sacrifice necessary medical care to reduce expenses*
Have you or a member of your household tried to reduce medical expenses by
doing any of the following?
*African American, Lano, and white households are using credit cards to pay for medical expenses. They are also all forbearing treat-
ment in order to cut down on health costs. The dierences by race and ethnicity for carrying medical debt on credit cards and forbear-
ing care are within the margin of error and not considered stascally signicant. The data are included here in order to illustrate the
contribuon of medical expenses to household debt and the household response to onerous costs across the populaon.
Across demographics, the majority of households with medical debt are turn-
ing to credit cards in order to pay for those expenses. Even households that have
insurance coverage can nd it dicult to aord medical care as the cost of premi-
ums, co-pays, and deductibles rise with health care costs overall. Almost half of all
households in our survey do rely on credit cards to nance out-of-pocket health
care bills like doctor’s appointments, hospital stays, and prescription medications.
In addition to paying for medical expenses through a credit card, half of those sur-
Incurred an out of pocket expense
and that expense did not
contribute to credit card debt
Incurred an out of pocket expense
and that expense contributed to
credit card debt
Median credit card debt from out-
of-pocket medical expenses
0%
0%
10%
Any (Net) Did not ll/postponed
lling a
prescription
Skipped medical test,
treatment or follow up
Did not go to see a
doctor/visit a clinic
when had a medical
problem
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
African American
$933
Latino
$1,521
White
$1,627
47%
39%
36%
32% 32%
50%
38%
30%
40%
36%
59%
51%
African American
White
Latino
15 • THE CHALLENGE OF CREDIT CARD DEBT FOR THE AFRICAN AMERICAN MIDDLE CLASS
veyed are forbearing health care to cut costs. Among indebted moderate-income
African American households, 47 percent have skipped a medical test, treat-
ment or follow-up, did not ll a prescription, or did not visit a doctor when
necessary in order to reduce medical expenses (see Figure 5).
According to the Department of Health and Human Services, the average
emergency room visit costs $1349. For the uninsured that price tag is even
higher, at $1843. For lower income and low wealth individuals this type of cost
can be nancially devastating. e cost burden is particularly problematic for
groups like African Americans, who have higher rates of chronic conditions,
like asthma, that send families to the emergency room, making hospitals an
important resource for critical care. Credit cards can provide the immediate
liquidity that a family needs when faced with an emergency, but the high balance
builds with each month that the debt goes unpaid.
December 2013 • 16
African Americans report
having worse credit scores
C
hanges in the American economy since 1980—including the stagna-
tion of household incomes, escalating expenses as declines in public
investment shied costs onto families, and the loss of workplace ben-
ets, wages, and job security as public policy failed to support the
voice of labor—resulted in credit cards taking on greater importance for family
nances. Today even middle class households are forced to rely on credit card
debt in order to make ends meet when their budgets cannot cover basic needs. At
the same time, borrowing history has become more important to non-nancial
opportunities, as the use of credit reports and scores expands to encompass areas
only loosely, if at all, related to standard lending, including hiring practices and
the provision of essential utilities and medical services. As credit reports and
scores gain importance for non-nancial purposes, new barriers arise for families
trying to take control over their household budgets.
Lower wealth, low rates of homeownership, and higher unemployment rates
put African Americans at a disadvantage for building a solid credit history. More-
over, discriminatory practices—like the predatory lending that targeted commu-
nities of color and contributed to the most recent nancial crisis—reinforce this
racial economic inequality and exacerbate the credit problems of African Ameri-
cans overall. As a result of these factors and others, credit scores are signicantly
correlated with race. Our survey asked indebted households to self-report their
credit scores to the best of their knowledge. We found that African American
households are much less likely than whites to report a good or excellent credit
score (see gure 6). ose reporting bad credit cite a range of issues that contribute
to their low credit scores, and African Americans with poor scores are signicant-
ly more likely than white households with poor scores to report late payments for
their student loans, as well as errors on their credit reports as a cause of bad credit.
African Americans are less likely to report that making late mortgage payments
or maxing-out their available credit contributed to poor scores (see Figure 7). e
results of our survey showing disparities in credit scores and the causes behind
them are part of a growing body of research that suggest a need for signicant
reforms in credit reporting and the widespread use of credit reports and scores
for non-lending purposes.
When asked to identify their credit score within a range, just 66% of African
American households report having a credit score of 620 or above, compared
to 85 percent of white households (see Table 3).
17 • THE CHALLENGE OF CREDIT CARD DEBT FOR THE AFRICAN AMERICAN MIDDLE CLASS
.
African Americans are less likely to report a credit score of 620 or above
What range is your credit score?
White African American
620 And Above 85% 66%
Between 580 and 619 9% 25%
579 And Under 6% 9%
When asked to describe their credit score, only 42 percent of African Ameri-
can households reported having “good” or “excellent” credit, compared to 74
percent of white households. More than half of African Americans report having
“fair” or “poor” credit (see Figure 6).
.
African Americans are less likely to report good or excellent credit scores.
Which Best Describes Your Credit Score?
.
African Americans and whites report some different causes of poor credit
Earlier you mentioned you have a poor credit score, which of the following
contributed to your poor credit score?
0%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
10%
40%
40%
12%
24%
44%
44%
17%
7%
20%
30%
40%
White African American
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
I've been late on my
student loan payments
I have errors on
my credit report
I've used nearly all or all
of my existing credit lines
I've been late with
mortgage payments
Good
Excellent
African American
White
December 2013 • 18
FAIRNESS AND ACCURACY
IN CREDIT REPORTS AND SCORES
Credit history is increasingly important to the economic opportunity of Amer-
ican households, and credit scoring and reporting products are a big industry,
earning billions of dollars per year. Landlords, lenders, and insurance providers
look to credit reports to individually tailor their eligibility and terms of provision.
What’s more, these products are no longer used only to assess individual credit
risk; their use has crept into practices for a number of non-nancial purposes,
such as health care or employment decisions. But credit scores and reports make
poor tools for appraising non-nancial liabilities, and the lack of fairness and ac-
curacy in the products make them unsuitable for many of the functions for which
they are used.
Our study found that moderate-income African American households with
credit card debt are less likely than similar white households to report good or
excellent credit, a nding that aligns with other research identifying racial biases
in credit scoring, including research from the Federal Reserve Board, the Federal
Trade Commission, and the Brookings Institution. Dēmos’ recent report, Dis-
credited: How Employment Credit Checks keep Qualied Workers Out of a Job, also
notes that the credit histories of Latinos and African Americans have suered as
a result of discrimination in lending, housing and employment itself. e poor
credit scores of African Americans relative to whites reect broader conditions of
economic inequality in the US, including the greater likelihood of unemployment
and inadequate insurance coverage among African Americans, and disparities in
wealth accumulation that persist from post-war era policies that favored whites,
as well as more recent discriminatory practices focused in African American
communities, such as redlining and predatory lending. e eects of the Great
Recession, which fell disproportionately hard on African American households,
exacerbate this racial economic divide.
e racial bias in credit histories further undermines the economic opportuni-
ties of African American families as their use grows to encompass areas unrelated
or loosely related to standard lending. Credit reports may dictate the availability
and conditions of acquiring a job or essential services. Employers may eliminate
applicants with credit problems from hiring consideration, even though there is
no evidence for a link between poor credit and poor job performance. Hospitals
and health care providers may examine their patients’ credit reports in order to
evaluate their ability to pay, sometimes even pressuring them to charge medical
bills to credit cards instead of negotiating for better prices. Oen, decisions about
the terms of service and deposit required for basic utilities like heat, water, or
electricity depend on credit reports and can create signicant barriers for families
trying to meet their basic needs.
Biases and inaccuracies in credit reports, and the expansion of the industry to
19 • THE CHALLENGE OF CREDIT CARD DEBT FOR THE AFRICAN AMERICAN MIDDLE CLASS
encompass non-nancial opportunities, reveal the growing need for policy to ad-
dress the problems concerning the use of credit history. Targeted solutions should
include reigning in the use of credit reports and scores for non-lending purpos-
es such as hiring, medical charges, and utility services; removing information in
credit reports that reveals little information about the responsibility of the bor-
rower such as medical debt and payment history on high-risk nancial products;
and increasing the accuracy and transparency of the credit reporting industry.
e Dēmos report Discrediting America examines these issues in greater detail.
A system of credit reporting and scoring that reproduces racial and economic
inequality serves neither lenders nor consumers and increasingly undermines the
economic security of households in areas unrelated to credit. e ndings of the
Dēmos National Survey on Credit Card Debt of Low- and Middle-Income House-
holds reinforce the urgent need for reform.
December 2013 • 20
African Americans are more likely
to be called by bill collectors,
and to have seen credit tighten
A
poor credit score can lead to worsening terms, higher fees, and re-
duced availability of credit. In the most drastic cases it can lead to
harsh consequences for families, like having property repossessed,
being evicted, or declaring bankruptcy. While a few members of our
survey were vulnerable to each of these complications, we found that moder-
ate-income African Americans are far more likely than other groups to be called
by bill collectors as a result of debt. In addition, when faced with higher interest
rates, African Americans were less likely to shi away from credit card use, possi-
bly because they have fewer assets to leverage for necessary spending.
When credit dries up in the economy, consumers with poor credit will feel the
eects rst. Aer the nancial crisis froze credit markets in 2007, lenders tight-
ened the amount of credit available, cutting lines of credit and imposing higher
standards for lending. ose moderate-income families who depend on credit
cards to make ends meet were doubly impacted —facing a severe recession that
both destabilized the households with the lowest incomes and shrank the avail-
ability of credit in the economy. Our survey found that credit-tightening practic-
es hit African American households hardest; more indebted African American
households reported feeling some eects of the credit squeeze on the availability
of credit than indebted white households.
In our survey of moderate-income households who carried credit card debt for
at least three months, there were no signicant dierences in the frequency of
African American and white households declaring bankruptcy, being evicted,
or having property repossessed. African American households were far more
likely than whites to be called by bill collectors as a result of their debt. We
found that 71 percent of African American households had been called by bill
collectors, compared to 50 percent of white households (see Figure 8).
21 • THE CHALLENGE OF CREDIT CARD DEBT FOR THE AFRICAN AMERICAN MIDDLE CLASS
.
African Americans are more likely to be called by bill collectors
Yes responses to ‘Have you ever been called by bill collectors when dealing with
debt?’
We also found no signicant dierences in the number of times African
Americans and whites were late on a credit card payment or faced a higher
interest rate as a result. However, African American and white households re-
sponded dierently when faced with higher interest rates. Looking at comparable
populations who were equally likely to pay their credit card bills on time, Afri-
can Americans were less likely to change the frequency of their card use when
their interest rate increased because of a late payment. While 80 percent of
white households changed their card use, only 62 percent of African American
households made the same change (see Figure 9). e greater likelihood of white
households responding to an increased interest rate by changing their credit card
use suggests that white families are more likely to be able to turn to other options
for short-term liquidity. African American households, in contrast, may not de-
crease their credit card use when interest charges climb because other sources
of liquidity are not available or are even more expensive – like payday loans, for
example.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
50%
71%
80%
White African Americans
December 2013 • 22
.
Despite similar rates of late payment, African Americans are less likely to
change card use when facing a higher interest rate due to late payment
Has getting your interest rate increased because of a late payment changed how
frequently you used the card?
As a response to the nancial crisis, credit card companies curtailed the amount
of credit they would extend and households faced a sudden reduction in credit
availability in the economy overall. Many households who applied for new credit
cards were denied, others had existing credit limits reduced or cards cancelled al-
together. Our survey found that African American households are more likely
to have felt some impact from credit tightening since 2008. Just over half of
African American households reported having a credit card cancelled, credit
limit reduced, or being denied for a credit card in the three years following the
recession (see Figure 10).
.
African Americans were disporportionately impacted by the credit crunch
In the last three years, have you had credit cards cancelled,
credit limit reduced, or applied for and been denied a credit card?
0%
10%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
36%
53%
44%
64%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
62%
80%
20%
38%
Yes
Yes No
No
African American
White
African American
White
23 • THE CHALLENGE OF CREDIT CARD DEBT FOR THE AFRICAN AMERICAN MIDDLE CLASS
Policy Recommendations
T
he American middle class has endured decades of rising costs while
income gains lagged behind. Facing household budget shortfalls for es-
sential spending that expanded over time, families turned to credit card
debt in order to maintain a middle class standard of living. Our survey
reveals that the struggle to make ends meet under diminishing income growth,
private assets, and social investments has led 4 out of 10 households with credit
card debt to rely on their credit cards just to get by.
e economic challenges facing all Americans are only compounded in Afri-
can American households, who over the same period bore the outcomes of racial
discrimination, including slow gains toward equality in income, persistent dispar-
ities in employment, and a widening gap in wealth ownership. While this study
focuses on the particular circumstances of African Americans, the diculties
facing low- and middle-income Americans are widespread and require renewed
consideration of how the nation deals with debt and credit.
e establishment of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau and the im-
plementation of the 2009 CARD Act are positive steps toward providing greater
protection for America’s weakened middle class. In addition, state-level policies
like those regulating the use of credit checks for hiring decisions have the capac-
ity to limit unnecessary and harmful barriers to employment. Protections that
establish fair, non-predatory credit practices relieve an already overburdened and
increasingly insecure middle class from the high cost of debt.
e results of our study point to three areas where new policies are required:
medical debt, nancial regulation, and credit scores. We also identify industry
practices that were not addressed by the CARD Act but which remain critical to
the fairness and security of consumer credit.
Medical Debt
MEDICAL DEBT PROTECTION
Emergency health expenses can run into the thousands of dollars and burden
families for years aer they have recovered from the physical trauma. In the de-
cades since the 1970s employers shed health care benets as a provision of em-
ployment and households turned to debt to nance critical health expenditures.
Aer decades without a policy response, the Patient Protection and Aordable
Care Act (ACA) nally oers a solution that can lower the individual cost burden
for health care. Yet medical debt will not cease to exist, and the rising cost of
health services and lower insurance rates among people of color make it dicult
to guarantee adequate coverage and quality of care. Since medical debts continue
December 2013 • 24
to accrue, there must be fair and non-discriminatory practices for their collection.
Medical lending practices should not be permitted to use evaluations of the total
credit available to patients. e appropriate nancial services guidelines for health
care facilities should be under the purview of the Consumer Financial Protection
Bureau (CFPB). Moreover, as unexpected medical expenses oer little informa-
tion about the character of the consumer, medical debt should excluded from
credit scores altogether.
Financial Regulation
BORROWER SECURITY
Many moderate-income African American households rely on credit to make in-
vestments in their futures and oen just to meet their basic needs. Because credit
plays an essential role in the nancial security of Americans, it should be gov-
erned by fair and responsible practices. e CARD Act began the industry re-
forms necessary to establish prudent guidelines and accountability for credit card
companies. Federal legislation protecting borrowers by setting national usury
limits, indexed to a federal rate, would complement the provisions of the CARD
Act. Such legislation would provide borrower security by eliminating unjustiably
high interest rates on credit products ranging from credit cards to student loans
and limiting late fees to $15 per late payment. Several states have already enacted
reforms that cap the interest rates of high-cost payday loans (See State-level pol-
icies for a fair credit market), showing the possibilities for state and local legisla-
tion to regulate the industry and protect consumers.
FAIRNESS IN BANKRUPTCY
Indebted moderate-income African American households need reasonable and
straightforward options as they work toward restoring their balance sheets. As
a last resort, declaring bankruptcy should provide the opportunity for families
to reconcile their debts, including mortgage and student debt. In order to make
bankruptcy a fair option to consumers, bankruptcy law should be amended in
two ways. First, courts should be permitted to restructure the debt on home mort-
gages by setting interest rates and principal at commercially reasonable market
rates and permitted to extend repayment periods. Secondly, judges should be al-
lowed to discharge student loan debt. Our survey found that 40 percent of African
American households that have poor credit scores have seen their scores drop due
to late student loan payments and that half of parents who helped pay for a child’s
tuition still have credit card debt from the expense. Incorporating student loans
into bankruptcy policy will make it possible for families to work for a better future
without being crippled by the cost of education.
25 • THE CHALLENGE OF CREDIT CARD DEBT FOR THE AFRICAN AMERICAN MIDDLE CLASS
DISPARATE IMPACT
As this report notes, African American households with credit card debt face
worse consequences of debt than other groups, including a greater likelihood of
calls from debt collectors. e dierent experiences of African Americans and
whites in the credit market could indicate disparate impact, in much the same way
disparate impact appears in mortgage and auto loan markets. e results of our
survey suggest a need for investigation of predatory lending in the credit market
by the CFPB for evidence of disparate impact.
Credit Scores
FAIR AND ACCURATE CREDIT SCORES
Our survey found that African Americans are far less likely than whites to report
a good or excellent credit score, aligning with a larger body of research show-
ing that credit scores are correlated with race. Moreover, a startling 40 percent of
those with poor credit scores have identied errors on their credit report that con-
tribute to the low score. A stronger role for the CFPB could begin improvements
in the transparency, validity, and appropriate use of credit reports and scores to
ensure accuracy and accessibility of credit reports and the regulation of report-
ing information. In addition, all medical debt, disputed claims, and unsafe credit
products should be excluded from the report. e improvement of reporting and
access would reduce the biases in credit scores and improve the economic security
of both borrowers and lenders.
BAN EMPLOYMENT CREDIT CHECKS
Today, employers commonly look into the credit histories of job candidates as
part of the hiring decision. While there is no evidence linking credit reports to
trustworthiness or dependability, credit reports have repeatedly been shown to
have race and income biases that make the practice of employment credit checks
highly discriminatory. Using credit reports as criteria for hiring exacerbates the
economic hardships facing households that may have had a medical emergency, a
divorce, a layo, or for those that experienced the most severe fallout from an eco-
nomic downswing. Ten states have already passed legislation limiting the use of
employment credit checks because of these issues (see State-level policies for a fair
credit market). We suggest that the US adopt the Equal Employment for All Act,
a federal law establishing uniform restrictions on credit checks for employment.
Extend the Successes of the CARD Act
e CARD Act is working for American households by standardizing best
practices industry-wide. Our research and recent data from the CFPB show that
consumers are better equipped to make informed choices and less subject to
abuses in the areas addressed by the legislation—such as fair and transparent pric-
December 2013 • 26
ing. e provisions of the CARD Act
include protections that grant consumers
better knowledge and control over their
nances, including requiring credit card
providers to make the due dates for pay-
ment the same each month, allocating
payments made above the monthly min-
imum to the highest interest rate balance
rst, and eliminating high-fee over-the-
limit spending unless customers explicit-
ly opt-in to the service. American house-
holds have seized this opportunity to pay
down balances and avoid fees.
Some card issuers responded to the leg-
islation with voluntary product improve-
ments, including an increased commit-
ment to customer service and attention to
received complaints. Yet problems of in-
adequate transparency and injurious costs
remain. In their evaluation of the CARD
Act, the CFPB identied a number of
areas where credit card companies could
promote higher standards of service. e
best practices would treat add-on prod-
ucts, such as supplementary protections
and credit monitoring, with the same
standards of transparency and disclo-
sure as are required for lines of credit,
even when provided through third-par-
ty contracts. Application fees—current-
ly excluded from the standard imposed
by the CARD Act that states fees cannot
exceed 25 percent of the total credit line
in the rst year—would be included in
the rst-year calculation of fees to ensure
that the ratio of costs to credit remains
reasonable. Moreover, a high standard for
clear disclosure related to rewards pro-
grams, grace periods, and products that
defer interest for an introductory period
would complement the practices already
covered by the CARD Act.
STATELEVEL POLICIES FOR
A FAIR CREDIT MARKET
In the absence of eective federal
legislation, consumer groups and
citizens organizations have shown
a way forward for curbing abusive
debt collection practices at the state
level, imposing limits on the inter-
est rates charged by non-traditional
lenders and banning employment
credit checks.
FAIR DEBT COLLECTION
Industries that thrive on abusive
debt collection practices but have
escaped federal legislation can and
should be regulated at the state
level. In many cases, consumer debt
purchased by third-party com-
panies is litigated in state courts
for automatic settlement without
proper notication and transpar-
ency for the buyer. e process
results in debtors, oen unknow-
ingly, faced with nancial penal-
ties and damaged credit reports
that can sabotage their economic
security for years. A 2011 study by
the New Economy Project showed
that in many cases the collection
process deprived the consumer of
their due process rights when debt
buyers brought cases that lacked
legal substantiation but either did
not provide proper notication to
the consumer or intimidated them
into settlement. Following a spate
of unfair collection actions in New
York, the Senate enacted the Con-
sumer Credit Fairness Act in 2013.
e law requires ocial notice of
any legal collection action, including detailed information regarding
the debt in question, and introduces a 3-year statute of limitations
for collection. Similar provisions are included in the Model Family
Financial Protection Act, proposed by the National Consumer Law
Center, and extended to a diverse range of lenders including banks,
credit card issuers, and non-traditional lenders.
REGULATING NONTRADITIONAL LENDERS
e exorbitant interest rates that accompany payday loans—with
rates as high as 400 percent annually—can trap consumers in a
spiral where low income requires increasingly high borrowing, even
for small loans. Although more than 12 million Americans turn
to this source of credit each year, the industry preys on borrowers
in the weakest nancial positions who use the loans for basic living
expenses like rent, utilities, food, and emergency repairs. Strong
usury laws at the state-level can prohibit payday lending entirely,
or restrict it with double-digit caps on the allowable interest rate.
To date, 17 states and Washington DC have enacted legislation cap-
ping the allowable interest rate on payday loans. Other laws limit the
maximum amount and length of borrowing in the industry; accord-
ing to the Center for Responsible Lending, one such law has already
saved consumers more than $122 million in fees. In addition to
direct regulation of non-traditional lenders, states should encour-
age aordable alternatives for the populations most likely to rely on
last-minute emergency loans.
BAN EMPLOYMENT CREDIT CHECKS
Ten states have already passed legislation limiting the use of employ-
ment credit checks. Unfortunately, none of the existing state laws
fully addresses the problem because all include unjustiable exemp-
tions that allow the discriminatory practice to continue in many job
categories. Since one in ve borrowers has a material error on their
credit report, and since poor credit histories are more likely to be
associated with low incomes than personal trustworthiness, the ex-
ceptions can undermine the job prospects of even the most respon-
sible applicants. ose states with legislation that falls short should
move to tighten the laws so that exemptions only exist where there is
a proven link between credit history and job performance. In June of
2013, the New York State Assembly passed one of the nation’s stron-
gest bills on employment credit checks, leaving no inappropriate ex-
emptions. e New York bill provides a guide for state-level action
in the future.
December 2013 • 28
ENDNOTES
1. Rakesh, Kochhar, Richard Fry and Paul Taylor, Wealth Gaps Rise to Record Highs between Whites, Blacks,
Hispanics. Pew Research Center, July 2011, http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/les/2011/07/SDT-Wealth-
Report_7-26-11_FINAL.pdf.
2. omas Shapiro, Tatjana Meschede, and Sam Osoro, e Roots of the Widening Racial Wealth Gap: Ex-
plaining the Black-White Economic Divide. Institute on Assets and Social Policy, February 2013, http://
iasp.brandeis.edu/pdfs/Author/shapiro-thomas-m/racialwealthgapbrief.pdf.
3. GDP measures from the Bureau of Economic Analysis National Economic Accounts, “Current and ‘Real’
Gross Domestic Product,” http://www.bea.gov/national/. Median Income from US Census Household
Income Historical Tables, “Table H-9. Type of Household--All Races by Median and Mean Income: 1980
to 2011,” http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/household/.
4. Economic Policy Institute. 2012. “Ratio of Black to White Median Family Income, 1947-2010,”. e State
of Working America. Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute, http://stateofworkingamerica.org/
charts/ratio-of-black-and-hispanic-to-white-median-family-income-1947-2010/.
5. Shapiro,et al.
6. Tim Sullivan, Wanjiku Mwangi, Brian Miller, Dedrick Muhammad, and Colin Harris, “e State of the
Dream, 2012: e Emerging Majority,” United for a Fair Economy, January 12, 2012, http://faireconomy.
org/sites/default/les/2012_State_of_the_Dream.pdf.
7. Austin Nichols and Margaret Simms, “Racial and Ethnic Dierences in Receipt of Unemployment In-
surances Benets During the Great Recession,” e Urban Institute, June 2012, http://www.urban.org/
UploadedPDF/412596-Racial-and-Ethnic-Dierences-in-Receipt-of-Unemployment-Insurance-Bene-
ts-During-the-Great-Recession.pdf.
8. Chad Stone and William Chen, “Introduction to Unemployment Insurance,” Center for Budget and
Policy Priorities, February 6, 2013, http://www.cbpp.org/les/12-19-02ui.pdf.
9. DeNavas-Walt, Carmen, Bernadette D. Proctor, and Jessica C. Smith, U.S. Census Bureau, Current Popu-
lation Reports, P60-243, Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2011, Table
A-2, Selected Measures of Household Income Dispersion, U.S. Government Printing Oce, Washington,
DC, 2012, http://www.census.gov/prod/2011pubs/p60-239.pdf.
10. Author’s analysis of 2010 Survey of Consumer Finances public data.
11. Shapiro, et al.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid.
15. Tamara Draut, Robert Hiltonsmith, and Catherine Ruetschlin, “e State of Young America: the Data-
book,” Dēmos, November 2011, http://www.demos.org/sites/default/les/publications/SOYA_eData-
book_2.pdf.
16. Robert W Fairlie and Alicia M Robb, “Why are Black-owned Businesses Less Successful than White-
Owned Businesses? e Role of Families, Inheritances, and Business Human Capital,” Journal of Labor
Economics, vol. 25, no. 2 (April 2007), http://people.ucsc.edu/~rfairlie/papers/published/jole%20
2007%20-%20blackbusiness.pdf.
17. US Census, “Survey Small Business Owners: Black-Owned Businesses 2007,” February 8, 2011, http://
www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/business_ownership/cb11-24.html.
18. US Census 2007 Survey of Business Owners, “Statistics for All U.S. Firms by Industry, Gender, Ethnicity,
and Race for the U.S., States, Metro Areas, Counties, and Places,” http://factnder2.census.gov/faces/
tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=SBO_2007_00CSA01&prodType=table.
19. Fairlie and Robb.
20. See, for example, Williams, Vanessa, “Quarterly Lending Bulletin, Small Business Lending: Fourth
Quarter 2012,” Small Business Alliance, January 2013, http://www.sba.gov/sites/default/les/les/
SBL_2012Q4%282%29.pdf. And New York Federal Reserve, “Small Business Credit Survey, May 2013,”
http://www.newyorkfed.org/smallbusiness/2013/pdf/full-report.pdf. And national Federation of Small
Businesses, “Small Business, Credit Access, and a Lingering Recession,” January 2012, http://www.nb.
com/Portals/0/PDF/AllUsers/research/studies/small-business-credit-study-nb-2012.pdf.
29 • THE CHALLENGE OF CREDIT CARD DEBT FOR THE AFRICAN AMERICAN MIDDLE CLASS
21. Catherine Cliord, “Small Business Credit Cards Flourish as Loans Disappear,” CNN Money, October 31 2009, http://
money.cnn.com/2009/10/26/smallbusiness/small_business_credit_cards_loans/.
22. US Department of Health and Human Services, Medical Expenditure Panel Survey, Table 6: Emergency Room Ser-
vices-Median and Mean Expenses per Person With Expense and Distribution of Expenses by Source of Payment:
United States, 2010 Facility And SBD Expenses, http://meps.ahrq.gov/data_stats/tables_compendia_hh_interactive.
jsp?_SERVICE=MEPSSocket0&_PROGRAM=MEPSPGM.TC.SAS&File=HCFY2010&Table=HCFY2010_PLEXP_E&-
VAR1=AGE&VAR2=SEX&VAR3=RACETH5C&VAR4=INSURCOV&VAR5=POVCAT10&VAR6=MSA&VAR7=RE-
GION&VAR8=HEALTH&VARO1=4+17+44+64&VARO2=1&VARO3=1&VARO4=1&VARO5=1&VARO6=1&-
VARO7=1&VARO8=1&_Debug=.
23. US Department of Health and Human Services, Oce of Minority Health, “Asthma and African Americans,” http://
minorityhealth.hhs.gov/templates/content.aspx?ID=6170.
24. See: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, “Report to the Congress on Credit Scoring and Its Eects on the
Availability and Aordability of Credit,” 2007; Federal Trade Commission, “Credit-Based Insurance Scores: Impacts on
Consumers of Automobile Insurance,” 2007; Robert B. Avery, Paul S. Calem, and Glenn B. Canner, “Credit Report Accu-
racy and Access to Credit,” Federal Reserve Bulletin, 2004; Matt Fellowes, “Credit Scores, Reports, and Getting Ahead in
America,” Brooking Institution, 2006.
25. Amy Traub, “Discredited: How Employment Credit Checks Keep Qualied Workers Out of a Job,” Dēmos, February
2013, http://www.demos.org/discredited-how-employment-credit-checks-keep-qualied-workers-out-job.
26. Amy Traub and Shawn Fremstad, “Discrediting America: e Urgent Need to Reform the Nation’s Credit Reporting In-
dustry,” Dēmos, 2011, http://www.demos.org/sites/default/les/publications/Discrediting_America_Demos.pdf.
27. Traub, Discredited.
28. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, “CARD Act Report: A Review of the Impact of the CARD Act on the Consumer
Credit Card Market,” October 1, 2013, http://les.consumernance.gov/f/201309_cfpb_card-act-report.pdf.
29. Ibid,7.
30. Susan Shin and Claudia Wilner, “e Debt Collection Racket in New York: How the Industry Violates Due Process and
Perpetuates Economic Inequality,” New Economy Project, June 2013, http://www.nedap.org/resources/documents/Debt-
CollectionRacketNY.pdf.
31. Robert J Hobbs and Chi Chi Wu, “Model Family Financial Protection Act,“ National Consumer Law Center, June, 2012,
http://www.nclc.org/images/pdf/debt_collection/model_family_nancial_protection_act.pdf.
32. Center for Responsible Lending, “How a Short-term Loan becomes a Long-term Debt,” http://www.responsiblelending.
org/payday-lending/.
33. Pew Charitable Trusts, “Payday Lending in America: Who Borrows, Where they Borrow, and Why,” http://www.pew-
states.org/uploadedFiles/PCS_Assets/2012/Pew_Payday_Lending_Exec_Summary.pdf.
34. Center for Responsible Lending, “How a Short-term Loan becomes a Long-term Debt,” http://www.responsiblelending.
org/payday-lending/.
35. Federal Trade Commission, “Fih Interim Federal Trade Commission Report to Congress Concerning the Accuracy of
Information in Credit Reports,” December 2012, http://www.c.gov/opa/2013/02/creditreport.shtm.
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