How Did Nike Get the Swoosh into Skateboarding? A Study of Authenticity and Nike SB

Syracuse University Syracuse University

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How Did Nike Get the Swoosh into Skateboarding? A Study of How Did Nike Get the Swoosh into Skateboarding? A Study of

Authenticity and Nike SB Authenticity and Nike SB

Brandon Gomez

Syracuse University

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Abstract

Skateboarding is widely regarded as a subculture that is highly resistant

to any type of integration or co-option from large, mainstream companies. In

2002 Nike entered the skateboarding market with its Nike SB line of shoes, and

since 2004 has experienced tremendous success within the skateboarding

culture. During its early years Nike experienced a great deal of backlash from

the skateboarding community, but has recently gained wider acceptance as a

legitimate company within this culture. The purpose of this study is to examine

the specific aspects of authenticity Nike was able achieve in order to

successfully integrate into skateboarding. In order to investigate the case of

Nike SB specifically, the concept of company authenticity within skateboarding

must first be clarified as well. This study involved an electronic survey of

skateboarders. This survey examined the various aspects of authenticity that

are most important for skateboard companies, as well as skateboarders’

attitudes about Nike SB as a skate shoe company. Through this research, a

better overall understanding of the concept of authenticity within the skateboard

culture was developed.

How Did Nike Get the Swoosh into Skateboarding?

A Study of Authenticity and Nike SB

Brandon Gomez

B.S. Indiana University of Pennsylvania, 2009

M.A. Candidate, Syracuse University, 2012

MASTER’S THESIS

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of

Arts in Media Studies in the Graduate School of Syracuse University

August 2012

IV#

Table of Contents

Chapter One: Introduction …………………………………………………… 1

Statement of purpose and research questions……………………… 2

Explanation of concepts ...…………………………………………….. 2

Gaps in the literature……..…………………………………………….. 4

Research significance……..…………………………………………… 6

Chapter Two: A History of Nike in Skateboarding………………………….. 8

The 1970s and 80s – Skateboarders discover Nike………………… 8

The 1990s – Nike discovers skateboarders………………………….. 9

2002 – Nike SB is born…………………………………………………. 10

2004 & 2005 – A turning point…………………………………………. 11

2007 to present – Nike SB continues to grow……………………….. 12

Chapter Three: Literature Review…………………………………………….. 14

Subcultural Studies of Skateboarding………………………………… 15

Resistance and Opposition in Skateboarding……………………….. 18

Brand Theory: Brand Personality……………………………………… 20

Authenticity………………………………………………………………. 23

Authentic identity………………………………………………... 23

Company authenticity – variables and hypotheses…...…….. 25

Chapter Four: Methods………………………………………………………… 31

Research Design………………………………………………………… 31

Sample………………………………………………………..………….. 32

Recruitment for study……………………………..……………………. 33

Reliability and Validity………………………..…………………………. 34

Chapter Five: Results……………..…………………………………………….. 37

Answering Research Questions.………………………………………. 38

Hypotheses Testing……………………………………………………… 42

Other Responses………………………………………………………… 52

Chapter Six: Discussion and Conclusion……………………………………… 56

Discussion of Results……………………………………………………. 56

Discussing research questions…………………………………. 56

Discussing the hypotheses……………………………………... 60

Weaknesses and Strengths…………………………………………….. 64

Weaknesses……………………………………………………… 64

Strengths………………………………………………………….. 66

Role of the Researcher………………………………………………….. 67

Future Research …………………………………………………………. 68

Conclusion……………………………………………………………….. 73

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Introduction

In a 2009 interview with Transworld Business Magazine, Brian Hanson,

owner of Concrete Wave skateshop, claims that footwear is now his number one

selling product, “thanks to Nike.” When asked what his best selling brand has

been over the past six months, he replies “Nike SB – HANDS DOWN!! [sic]”

(Lewis, 2009). Transworld Business is a magazine that focuses on the industries

within skateboarding, snowboarding and other sport subcultures. In 2009 the

writers at this magazine conducted interviews with 30 skateshops over a period

of 30 days, in a campaign they called “Retail Profiles.” One question that was

asked of every shop is: “what are your top selling brands?” Many of the

skateshops indicated that Nike SB was usually in their top 3 selling brands. In a

“Retail Profile” of the Skatepark of Tampa (one of the most well-known

skateparks/skateshops in the country), owner Barak Wiser stated that his best

selling product is footwear, and that his best selling brand is Nike SB (Sullivan,

2009). Many other skateshops that were interviewed in this campaign seemed

to consistently name Nike SB as a top selling product.

The majority of the existing literature regarding the skateboarding

subculture describes skateboarding as a culture that is highly resistant and

oppositional to any integration or co-option from large, mainstream companies

(Beal, 1995, 1996; Brooke, 1999; Wheaton & Beal, 2003; Beal & Weidman, 2003;

Donnelly, 2008; Rinehart, 2008; Yochim, 2010). Since 2004, however, Nike has

been largely successful in its integration of the Nike SB shoe line into the

skateboarding culture (Jürgen & Schmid, 2008). The interviews conducted in

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the “Retail Profiles” by Transworld Business Magazine, along with a number of

interviews and articles within the popular press, confirm that Nike SB is now a

dominant force within skateboarding.

Statement of purpose and research questions

The purpose of this study is to examine the concept of authenticity in

skateboarding and Nike’s successful entrance into skateboarding with the Nike

SB shoe line. Through a study of Nike SB, a better understanding of the

skateboarding culture, and how company authenticity is constructed and

achieved within this community, will be developed. In order to accurately

explore the case of Nike SB as an authentic brand within skateboarding, it is

first important to discover what it means to be an authentic company in the

skateboard community. Therefore I pose the following research question:

RQ1: Which aspects of a skateboard company’s authenticity are most

important to skateboarders?

This then leads me into my second research question:

RQ2: Which aspects of authenticity has Nike SB successfully achieved

within the skateboard community?

Explanation of concepts

As Beverland, Farrelly & Quester (2010) point out, authenticity is a

concept that is often disputed within much of the literature. Grayson and

Martinec (2004) note that many scholars have associated authenticity with

“genuineness,” “reality,” or “truth” (p. 297). Most definitions of authenticity

commonly refer to attributes of actual artifacts and physical objects, such as

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works of art or jewelry (Beverland, Lindgreen, & Vink, 2008). For this study,

however, I will define the concept of authenticity as “a socially constructed

interpretation of the essence of what is observed, rather than properties inherent

in an object” (Beverland & Farrelly, 2010, p. 839). Authenticity, according to this

definition, is both subjective and socially constructed by consumers, and

cultural insiders (Beverland, 2009). It should be stressed that the focus is not

on the authenticity of the actual physical object, which in this case would be

shoes, but the perceived authenticity of the company and brand as a whole.

Beverland (2005) suggests that companies trying to successfully market to

specific groups of consumers need to “downplay their overt marketing prowess

and instead locate their brands within communities and subcultures” (p. 460).

In their article, “Authenticity in the Skateboarding World,” Becky Beal and

Lisa Weidman (2003) illustrate how authenticity is constructed within this

subculture, which includes an in-depth analysis of authenticity from the

standpoint of the skateboarding industry. This study will build on the work of

Beal and Weidman, utilizing quantitative data from skateboarders themselves in

order to determine the most important aspects of a company’s authenticity.

Beal and Weidman (2003) offer a breakdown of the nature of the skateboarding

industry, and the ways in which niche skateboarding companies achieve a level

of legitimacy and respectability in the eyes of skateboarders and the

skateboarding community. Most of the successful companies within

skateboarding have started from the ground up by actual skateboarders. If this

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is true, then how was Nike SB able to overcome this obstacle and become

recognized as an authentic company within skateboarding?

Gaps in the literature

Over the past few decades, scholars have started to focus more on the

skateboarding subculture, a community that has grown to an estimated 11

million participants in the United States alone (Donnelly, 2008). This literature

has investigated skateboarding from a variety of perspectives. Iain Borden’s

(2001) study explored skateboarding’s relationship to the city, and the ways that

this culture offered a critique of architecture and the city through skateboarding.

Based on the work of Borden (2001), other scholars have concentrated on

skateboarding’s relationship to the urban environment, and how skateboarders

make use of public space and architecture (Irvine & Taysom, 1998; Howell,

2006; Nemeth, 2004; Nemeth, 2006). A great deal of the literature, however has

concentrated on issues of gender, masculinity, and race within the

skateboarding subculture (Beal, 1995; Beal, 1996; Porter, 2003; Brayton, 2005;

Donnelly, 2008; Yochim, 2010).

Very little research, however, has been done on the subject of

authenticity within the skateboarding culture, and how this culture constructs

authenticity. Beverland (2009) briefly discusses subcultures and authenticity,

using skateboarding as an example. Beverland describes how the shoe

company Vans, a core skate shoe company, began to lose authenticity in the

eyes of skateboarders when it attempted to branch out to more mainstream

sports; almost the exact opposite of this study’s premise.

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This research hopes to further build upon the work done by Beal and

Weidman (2003), which is one of very few studies that mentioned authenticity

from the standpoint of the skateboard industry. Rather than looking at

companies that grew out of the skateboarding community, however, this study

will examine a large, mainstream company that was able to successfully enter

the skateboarding market. Beal and Weidman argue that “people who do not

understand skateboard culture tend not to get involved in the skateboard

industry, and those outsiders who do attempt it are usually unsuccessful” (2003,

p. 36). Donnelly (2008) discusses how skateboarding and similar subcultures

have consistently resisted association with larger companies, making specific

mention to how Nike has “experienced difficulty entering the skateboarding

shoe market due to their affiliation with ‘dominant’ sports such as basketball

and baseball, and their lack of history with skateboarding” (211).

Even within the relatively small body of literature that touches upon this

issue, most of the consensus lies upon the notion that skateboarders are largely

oppositional to these attempted infiltrations by the mainstream and large

corporations (Beal, 1995, 1996; Wheaton & Beal, 2003; Beal & Weidman, 2003;

Donnelly, 2008; Rinehart, 2008; Yochim, 2010). Nike seems to be a very unique

case, and there has not been a study that has examined the successful entry of

a mainstream corporation into such an exclusive subculture. How was Nike

able to go from being an outsider to the skateboarding community to becoming

a legitimate company with an increasingly positive status? This is a question

that has largely been overlooked by scholars who have focused on

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skateboarding and authenticity within this culture. A variety of multi-national

corporations including Adidas, Reebok, and Converse have attempted to break

into the skateboarding market, which has been estimated to be $5.7 billion

annual industry (Donnelly, 2008). Nike, however, has by far become the most

successful of these large companies, now offering twenty-three top-selling shoe

models since the launch of Nike SB in 2002 (www.nikesb.com).

Research Significance

This study is significant for a variety of reasons. Firstly, it will advance

the literature on the skateboarding culture and similar subcultures, especially

those that may be regarded as consumer cultures. Wheaton (2007) brings up a

point that has been made by a number of other scholars (McArther, 2008;

Hesmondhalgh, 2005): subculture studies tend to focus strictly on music, style,

and dance cultures. Wheaton (2007) states, “cultural studies and mainstream

sociological commentators engaging with subcultures have often ignored sport”

(p. 284). She argues that lifestyle sports, such as skateboarding, are ideal for

academic research in this area. Specifically, this research will advance the work

done by Beal and Weidman (2003) on authenticity within the skateboard

community. Rather than focusing on companies that are specifically devoted to

skateboarding, this study will instead investigate how a mainstream company,

which is traditionally devoted to more dominant sports, has managed to achieve

authenticity within the skateboard community. Beverland argues that “studies

of how brand develop images of authenticity are needed” and that “research

into how consumers define authenticity is required” (2005, p. 460).

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Not only will this research advance the literature within the fields of sport

sociology, youth culture, subculture studies, and media studies, but it will also

have a great deal of importance to fields such as advertising, marketing, and

public relations. Nike has accomplished what every large retail corporation

desires to do: break into a niche, ‘hip’ demographic of teenagers and

adolescents. Through a study of this example, perhaps skateboarding

companies and larger retailers alike can gain a better understanding into the

aspects of company and brand authenticity that are most important to

skateboarders. The relevant findings from this study do not have to remain

exclusive to skateboarding alone, and could perhaps be applied to similar sport

subcultures such as surfing, snowboarding, BMX, wakeboarding, and

motocross.

This is also the first quantitative study of skateboarders to date. All

academic studies of the skateboarding subculture have been qualitative in

nature, relying largely on interviews with skateboarders, observational

techniques, or textual analysis (Beal, 1995; Beal, 1996; Beal & Weidman, 2003;

Donnelly, 2008; Irvine & Taysom, 1998; Németh, 2004; Németh, 2006; Porter,

2003; Yochim, 2010). I am not insinuating that these methods or specific

studies are weak by any means, but merely pointing out that this will be the first

instance of quantitative data gathered from the skateboarding subculture for

academic research. This is valuable information, considering skateboarding that

in 2008 skateboarding was a $4.78 billion annual industry with 11 million

estimated U.S. participants (Donnelly, 2008, Yochim, 2010).

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A History of Nike in Skateboarding

In order to discuss Nike’s current status in the skateboard community, it

is crucial to understand the history of Nike’s entrance into skateboarding.

Although Nike officially entered into skateboarding in 2002 with the Nike SB

brand, Nike’s history in skateboarding extends well beyond this, dating back to

the early 1970s.

The 1970s and 80s – Skateboarders discover Nike

The true arrival of Nike into the skateboarding culture can be traced back

to 1972. This is the year Nike released the Blazer shoe model, which was the

first basketball shoe to possess the famous swoosh symbol (KicksGuide.com).

Skateboarders during the 1970s were searching for shoes that offered ankle

support, protection, and board-feel, which they found in non-skate shoes like

the Nike Blazer (Jürgen & Schmid, 2008). Throughout the late 1970s the Nike

high-top Blazers became the preferred skate shoe for many professional

skateboarders.

In the 1987, a skateboarding video featuring five legendary skateboarders

(including Tony Hawk), titled Search for Animal Chin, sparked a Nike resurgence

in the skateboarding world (Jürgen & Schmid, 2008). Throughout the video, the

well-known skateboarders are all seen sporting Nike Jordan I basketball shoes.

Along with the release of Animal Chin in the late 1980s, the Jordan 2 began

initial releases in US stores as well, leading to massive discounts of the Jordan 1

models. These two factors led to a craze for Nike Jordan 1 models in

skateboarding that lasted well into the early 1990s. According to Nike SB shoe

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designer, James Arizumi, “the Jordan 1 is THE quintessential skate shoe”

(Jürgen & Schmid, 2008, p. 107).

The 1990s – Nike discovers skateboarders

Throughout the 1990s Nike began to dabble in the skateboarding

industry. In 1994 Nike experienced another brief accidental success with their

tennis shoe called the GTS, and a year later Nike sponsored the first edition of

the 1995 ESPN X-Games (Jürgen & Schmid, 2008). After this unplanned

success in skateboarding with the GTS, Nike decided to launch a series of

advertisements directed towards skateboarders. The 1997 campaign, called

“What if,” featured depictions of mainstream sports participants being treated

poorly like skateboarders. The tagline to the ads was, “What if all athletes were

treated like skateboarders?”

Unfortunately for Nike, although these clever ads did receive a lot of

attention, Nike shoes simply did not meet the criteria for skateboarders. In a

review of Nike by Dave Carnie in Big Brother Magazine, he described the soles

as too thick and simply concluded that, “their shoes suck” (Jürgen & Schmid,

2008, p. 284). Piney Kahn, of Sole Technology, believes that Nike’s flop in 1998

was due to two factors. First, Nike’s plan was too engineered and it tried to

“buy its way into the market and camouflage what it was” (Montgomery, 2002a,

p. 3). Secondly, the product was simply not up to par and did not hold up to

skateboarder’s standards. The poor shoe design alongside the mass-market ad

campaign forced Nike to pull the shoe line after only one year (Robertson, 2004).

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2002 – Nike SB is born

In 2002 Nike saw another opportunity in skateboarding and decided to

take a serious step into skateboarding and released their Nike SB

(skateboarding) line of shoes. In a 2005 interview Sandy Bodecker, Nike SB

Vice President at the time, believed that those working on the 1998 campaign

simply did not get the necessary support they needed and that the 2002 launch

was the “first real effort… to get into it in a serious way and not just dabble”

(Sneaker Freaker Magazine). Bodecker felt that Nike’s initial success relied on

three crucial factors: Nike had to commit to the project for at least 5 years,

involve skateboarders in the design processes, and reissue the Nike Dunk shoe

model (Robertson, 2004).

After listening to skateboarder needs and employing skateboard insiders

for the design team, Nike released the Nike Dunk SB with the 2002 line, a rebirth

of the original 1985 Nike Dunk basketball shoe (Crockett, 2005). In order to help

successfully springboard the new Dunk SB line, Nike collaborated with other

major skate companies, such as Zoo York, and well-known professional

skateboarders. Nike also released limited edition lines, like the “City Series,”

and sold the shoes only in specialty skateboard shops (Crockett, 2005;

Bobbyhundreds).

Nike’s strategy of selling only to specialty skate shops became a major

factor to their success in skateboarding (Montgomery, 2002b). Nike stressed

that the SB shoe line should not be available in the malls and other large retail

stores. Along with reaching out to core skate shops, Nike also hired well-

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regarded people in the skateboard community to work on the Nike SB shoe line,

including skateboarder Kevin Imamura. Imamura, global marketing manager for

Nike SB, believes that hiring people from within the skateboard industry was

one of Nike’s most important moves (Gumz, 2006). The bottom line was that

Nike needed to earn the respect of the core skateboard community. In order to

get this “street cred,” Nike SB developed a simple overall strategy: sell only to

core skate shops, advertise only in skateboard magazines, and sponsor well-

respected professional skateboarders (Robertson, 2004; Jürgen & Schmid,

2008).

2004 & 2005 – A turning point

After only two years, Nike SB had already seen tremendous success in

the skateboarding market with the Nike Dunk SB and other shoe models. Many,

however, consider 2004 the most important turning point for Nike SB (Berg,

2005; Jürgen & Schmid, 2008; SkateboardingMagazine.com, 2010). 2004 was

significant because during this year Nike SB added skateboarder Paul

Rodriguez Jr. to its already outstanding roster of professional skateboarders.

Paul Rodriguez signed a multi-million dollar contract with Nike and became the

first skateboarder to receive a signature shoe from the company a year later in

2005, called the Nike SB P-Rod. Upon receiving this honor, P-Rod (as most call

him) also became the first Mexican-American athlete to have his own signature

shoe with Nike (Jürgen & Schmid, 2008). According to Mr. Imamura, “We don’t

give out signature shoes to many people. We were looking for someone with a

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stature like Paul, in terms of his ability, reputation, and track record. He’s

someone who can really carry a signature shoe” (Berg, 2005, p. 1).

2004 and 2005 were also important years because during this time Nike

was able to sign other renowned professional skaters to their roster including:

Chet Childress, Wieger Van Wageningen, Omar Salazar, Stephan Janoski, Brian

Anderson (Jürgen & Schmid, 2008). In 2005, Nike team rider and skateboarding

legend Lance Mountain, also announced the release of the Nike Blazer SB. The

Blazer SB would be a transformed version of the original 1972 Blazer that could

handle the demands of skateboarders while still appealing to its nostalgic

skateboarding roots (SkateboarderMagazine.com, 2010).

2007 to present – Nike SB continues to grow

Riding the waves of success created by the Nike SB P-Rod shoe model

and continued demand for the Dunk SB and other shoe models, Nike continued

to make positive headway into skateboarding. Nike did not stray from the

formula that had proved successful up to this point. Nike SB continued to sign

well-known professional skateboarders like skateboarding icon Eric Koston, as

well up-and-coming skateboarding prodigies for its amateur team. Nike SB also

made it a point to sponsor skateboarding events on both the local and national

levels (Higgins, 2007; Hoye, 2007).

Another tactic Nike SB began to use was the release of full-length skate

videos. These 30 to 60 minute videos act as both promotional tools for

skateboard companies and entertainment for skateboarders. The distribution of

these videos is basically a necessity for any company that wants to appear

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authentic to the core skateboarder market (Yochim, 2010). Nike SB did not

ignore this detail and produced a variety of skateboarding videos including: On

Tap (2004), Nothing but the Truth (2007), Debacle (2009), Don’t Fear the

Sweeper (2010), and even a collaboration with skaters from Gift, a Chinese

skateboard company, titled It’s a Wrap (2009).

Nike Also released two more professional shoe models. In 2009,

professional skateboarder Stefan Janoski became the second ever to receive

his own pro model for Nike, called the Zoom Stefan Janoski SB. The next year,

Nike announced the March 20

, 2010 release of the latest pro model shoe. The

Zoom Omar Salazar SB, named after pro skater Omar Salazar, is the third and

final pro model shoe Nike SB has released to this date

(SkateboardingMagazine.com, 2010).

In 2010, Nike announced its first quarter profits had climbed 9%. Nike

stated that this progress was driven by growth in each of the Nike Brand

categories, including Action Sports (Lewis, 2010). On May 5

, 2010 Nike

announced its global growth strategy for 2015. NIKE Brand President, Charlie

Denson, offered an overview of Nike’s strategy for growth until the end of the

2015 fiscal year. Denson described Nike’s Action Sports category, which

consists of Nike 6.0 and Nike SB, as the fastest growing category within the

Nike Brand (Nikebiz, 2010). He also estimated that Nike’s Action Sports

category currently generates $390 million in business, and that Nike hopes to

double this figure by the end of 2015 (Nikebiz, 2010).

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Literature Review

The literature that currently exists on skateboarding seems to be focused

in a few distinct areas. Although skateboarding falls under a variety of

categorizations, by and large, skateboarding is considered a subculture within

the academic literature; therefore a great deal of the research has been based

largely within subculture theories. Since the first usage of the term ‘subculture’

by McLung Lee in 1945, there has been a great deal of ambiguity and debate

surrounding this concept (Young & Atkinson, 2008). Many of the scholars that

have studied and written on skateboarding as a subculture have largely

grounded their studies in the work done by the Center for Contemporary

Cultural Studies (CCCS) at the University of Birmingham during the 1970s.

What is interesting about this era, is that both the rise of subcultural studies in

Birmingham and the emergence of the California skateboarding scene, with the

‘Z-Boys’ and ‘Dogtown’, seem to surface in almost perfect chorus. Yochim

(2010) describes the beginnings of the Dogtown skateboarding scene as an

emergence of a subculture that was deeply rooted in issues of class. These

rebellious working class youths were depicted as the pioneers of a new

subculture; one that was in direct resistance to the bourgeois beach culture of

this time and place. Even during the nascent beginnings of the skateboarding

culture, these sentiments of opposition and resistance were already becoming

embedded into the shared values of this community.

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Subcultural Studies of Skateboarding

One would be hard pressed to deny the claim that skateboarding, within

the United States, is a culture that is dominated primarily by white, heterosexual,

adolescent males. A great deal of the literature that has focused on

skateboarding as a subculture seems to be reflective and critical of this

hegemonic masculinity that exists within this culture. Becky Beal’s 1995 study

is considered to be the seminal skateboarding study, from which many

researchers have grounded their research (Donnelly, 2008). Beal’s (1995)

original study consisted of observation, participant-observation, and semi

structured in-depth interviews, all of which took place in northeastern Colorado.

The observations that Beal carried out began in 1989, and the interviews took

place over a 2-year period from 1990 to 1992. Overall, Beal conducted

interviews with a total of 41 skateboarders. Only 4 of the skateboarders were

female and all participants, except for two Hispanic males, were Anglo. This

research considered skateboarding to be a form of popular culture that resists

capitalist social relations. In this study, Beal (1995) relied heavily on Gramsci’s

(1971) concept of hegemony. She described skateboarding as a site of social

resistance that challenges the dominant hegemonic ideologies, while

simultaneously accommodating certain aspects of this very same hegemony.

Using the data collected from this research, Beal released a subsequent

study in 1996, which focused on the construction of masculinity within

skateboarding. Beal (1996) discovered that skateboarding, as a subculture,

operates a site where males can challenge the dominant norms of hegemonic

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masculinity, especially those within other “mainstream” sports. Skateboarding

serves as a site for these male adolescents to develop a form of an “alternative

masculinity;” one that promotes self-expression, individualism, and flexibility,

while simultaneously de-emphasizing competition and rule-bound performance

(Beal, 1996). Beal (1996) also claims that, while skateboarders do actively

construct forms of masculinity that challenge hegemonic norms, skateboarding

also serves as a medium for upholding ideologies of male dominance and

gender stratification.

While Beal’s work in the early to mid-1990s was certainly

groundbreaking, Donnelly (2008) argues that there seems to be an over-reliance

on this single ethnographic study, and that sport sociology studies regarding

this subculture need to move away from this research. While I do agree in part

with Donnelly, it seems that most of the literature that does exist on

skateboarding has fallen into similar lines of inquiry. Wheaton and Beal’s (2003)

study focused on the niche media produced by the wakeboarding and

skateboarding subcultures. Although this was a study of two different sport

subcultures, very similar conclusions were still drawn. Within this study the

authors concluded that niche magazines dedicated to wakeboarding and

skateboarding still produce imagery and messages in which males dominate

and hegemonic masculinity is very much prevalent (Wheaton & Beal, 2003).

While the subjects of their interviews were hesitant to make any conversation

that centered on these issues of race and gender, the niche media that was

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consumed by these participants was still very much representative of a white

hegemonic masculinity, which stratified both gender and race.

Sean Brayton (2005) also touches on comparable issues of race and

white hegemony within skateboarding. Similar to Beal’s (1996) analysis of

alternative masculinities that skateboarders construct, Brayton (2005) argues

that skateboarding provides grounds for a resistance against dominant white

ideologies, “symbolized by a co-opting ‘blackness,’” while simultaneously

promoting whiteness by the marketing white skaters (356). Brayton compares

skateboarding to a symbolic flight from middle-class, white conformity and

history of oppression associated with whiteness. Brayton sees skateboarders

as a modern-day analogy of the “white Negro” narratives of the 1950s,

specifically comparing skateboarding road trips to the narratives found in Jack

Kerouac’s On the Road (1957) and Norman Mailer’s White Negro (1957).

Emily Yochim’s 2010 book, Skate life: Re-imagining White Masculinity,

provides the most recent investigation into the skateboarding subculture.

Similar to many previous studies, Yochim (2010) tackles a variety of issues

including masculinity, race, gender, and sexuality within this book. Yochim also

makes a valuable contribution to the existing literature by coining the term

“corresponding cultures.” Yochim describes a corresponding culture as “a

group organized around a particular lifestyle or activity that interacts with

various levels of media – niche, mainstream, and local – and variously agrees or

disagrees with those media’s espoused ideas” (2010, p. 4). Yochim (2010) uses

this concept of skateboarding as a corresponding culture to build on Beal’s

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(1996) research. She comes to the conclusion that skateboarders both actively

critique the dominant masculine ideologies, while simultaneously maintaining

the power that white heterosexual masculinity offers. Yochim’s research is

significant because it incorporates mainstream, niche, and local media as sites

for skateboarders to actively critique white hegemonic masculinity and

renegotiate alternate forms of masculinity.

Resistance and Opposition in Skateboarding

A great deal of the scholars who have contributed to the literature on the

skateboarding subculture seem to come to the conclusion that skateboarding,

by and large, is a culture that is highly resistant and oppositional towards

outside incorporation (Beal, 1995, 1996;Brooke, 1999; Wheaton & Beal, 2003;

Beal & Weidman, 2003; Donnelly, 2008; Rinehart, 2008; Yochim, 2010). Beal’s

(1995) groundbreaking research was largely based on the notion that

skateboarding operates as a site of social resistance to the dominant

hegemonic ideologies. Beal (1995) discovered that skateboarders de-emphasis

of elite competition and blatant disregard of mainstream sports, along with

promotion of self-expression and participant control created direct challenges to

capitalist social relations. Since Beal’s original 1995 study of Colorado

skateboarders, other scholar’s have also focused on skateboarding as a site of

resistance and opposition.

Donnelly (2008) discusses incorporation from the mainstream within

skateboarding. She points out that within sport sociology, incorporation is

essentially considered to be a negative process, specifically within subcultures

" " 19"

of sport (i.e. skateboarding). Skateboarding, as a highly oppositional and

resistant culture, is constantly as coming under threat from corporate

commercialization (Donnelly, 2008). Donnelly emphasizes this point by stating:

“The story of skateboarding that dominates the sociology of sport

literature is that skateboarding subculture(s) is in the process of

being co-opted through the loss of participant control to

corporate interests, and the infiltration of the ‘dominant’ sport

model emphasizing competition and winning” (2008, p. 211)

Rinehart (2008) makes this dilemma of competition the center of his study,

which investigates the X-Games as a site of co-option and opposition within

skateboarding. It was through the X-Games that the term “extreme sports”

originated, as a way to market these various subcultures to a larger audience by

“aligning their ethos with more mainstream-sport values” (Rinehart, 2008, p.

179). Rinehart claims that skateboarding is considered to be the most

oppositional to co-option by the X-Games and other mainstream intrusions,

simply because of the history of skateboarding, which is so deeply rooted in

these resistant ideologies, has defined skateboarders as ‘outsiders’ of society

(2008). The X-Games continue to be a site of constant opposition for sport

subcultures, but Rinehart argues that while ESPN may be able to appropriate

the imagery of skateboarding, but it will never truly be able to co-op

skateboarding itself.

Nike SB is no exception to this history of resistance in skateboarding.

Since Nike’s original foray into skateboarding during the late 1990s, Nike has

" " 20"

seen resistance from certain sects of the skateboarding culture. The most

prominent opponent of Nike’s skateboarding presence is the owner of

Consolidated Skateboard Company, Steve “Birdo” Guisinger (Gumz, 2006;

Jürgen & Schmid, 2008). Guisinger started the Consolidated Skateboard

Company in 1992, and strongly believes that the skateboard industry belongs in

the hands of skateboarders and that Nike has no place in skateboarding. During

Nike’s original 1997 attempts to enter skateboarding, Guisinger launched his

own campaign against Nike called “Don’t Do It,” an obvious parody on the Nike

slogan (Jürgen & Schmid, 2008). He took out ads in skateboarding magazines

for his “Don’t Do It” campaign, asking skateboarders to boycott Nike and other

large sports companies (Gumz, 2006). Guisinger and his company revived this

brand war after Nike released the Nike SB brand. Those who believed and

followed Consolidated’s ideologies became known as members of the “Don’t

Do It Army” (Jürgen & Schmid, 2008). In 2007, along with major skate shoe

company Osiris, Consolidated even released a shoe called the “Consolidated

BS Drunk,” which was a mockery of the Nike SB Dunk, featuring a banana in

place of the Nike swoosh (Jürgen & Schmid, 2008).

Brand Theory: Brand Personality

In his 1996 book, Building Stong Brands, David Aaker lays out four

perspectives that a brand can utilize in developing a ‘brand identity.’ One of

these perspectives relates most specifically to this research and the case of

Nike’s successful entry into skateboarding as an authentic brand: Brand

personality, or the brand as a person. In order for Nike to relate to

" " 21"

skateboarders, they needed to portray a personality that was representative of

the skateboarding culture as a whole. Aaker (1996) defines brand personality as

“the set of human characteristics associated with a given brand.” Brand

personalities are also extremely important when a company is trying to

distinguish themselves from other brands, and “carve out a niche in the

consumer’s mind” (Upshaw, 1995).

The creation of brand personality relies on attributes that are both directly

related and non-related to the product. Characteristics that are directly related

to a product include price, packaging, and category of product (in this case

shoes). It is the non-related product characteristics that will be more important

in this specific case. Some important non-related characteristics include:

sponsorships, celebrity endorsements, ad style, and user imagery.

Sponsorships, in this case, refer to the actual events that the brand or company

sponsors and the effect that these sponsorships have on the perceived

personality of a brand. Does Nike SB sponsor large events like the X-Games or

smaller, localized events like skateboard demos at local shops? A celebrity

endorsement, in this case, refers to the professional and amateur skateboarders

that Nike SB sponsors. The personalities and prowess of each of these

skateboarders, and the Nike SB team as a whole, certainly has an effect on the

perceived brand personality of Nike within skateboarding. Upshaw (1995)

argues that by utilizing a brand spokesperson, the personality traits of that

person will transfer into the brand itself.

" " 22"

User imagery refers to the way that the users, in this case the

skateboarders within Nike’s ads and videos, are seen using the product. If the

users are seen having expressing some traditional values of the skateboarding

culture in these ads and videos, such as skateboarding for pure enjoyment and

de-emphasizing competition (Yochim, 2010), then Nike’s brand personality will

become associated with these values as well. After learning from its initial

mistakes in the late 90s, Nike launched a variety of new advertisement

campaigns that were much more successful. Unlike the “What If” ad campaign,

which addressed a mainstream audience and referenced team sports, the 2002

“My First Sponsor” campaign focused on the personality of skateboarders. The

concept of the ads was to let Nike’s team riders choose someone from their

background who had a positive influence on them on their way to becoming a

professional skateboarder, who would also be featured in the ad with them. The

personalities of the individual skateboarders on the Nike team were the focus of

these advertisements, not the product or even the activity of skateboarding

(Jürgen & Schmid, 2008). The riders and their family and friends were shown

prominently in the ads, while a barely visible, miniature Nike swoosh logo was

hidden on an object in the background (Jürgen & Schmid, 2008). This subtle

concept helped start Nike’s rebound in the skateboard community. Through

featuring these ads strictly in skateboard magazines, they were able to utilize the

personalities of the professional skateboarders to successfully springboard the

new Nike SB brand.

" " 23"

As Vaid (2003) describes, brand personality “does not refer to the

personality of the consumers. Rather, it’s designed to be a personality that

attracts the right people.” In this case, the right people are skateboarders, and

in order to attract skateboarders to a product, a brand needs to be very careful

in the type of personality it wants to portray. In this research, skateboarders will

be asked a variety of questions related to the importance of brand personality

and Nike SB’s brand specifically. Questions will focus on team sponsorship,

individual sponsorship (i.e. celebrity endorsement), sponsorship of both local

and national skateboarding events, presence in local skateboarding shops, and

advertising in skateboard magazines and on skateboard websites.

Authenticity

Authenticity is an extremely broad concept, and as Mikkonen (2010)

notes, there has been a wide variety of conceptualizations regarding

‘authenticity.’ Beverland (2005) describes the concept of authenticity as one

that remains problematic for researchers, as there is no definition or description

of this term that is generally accepted.

Authentic identity

Similar to other subcultural studies focusing on authenticity (Moore, 2004;

Beverland, Farrelly, & Quester, 2010; Mikkonen, 2010) the literature within sport

sociology concerning skateboarding largely seems to discuss the concept of

authenticity in terms of membership and ‘authentic identities.’ Wheaton and

Beal (2003) provide an in-depth investigation into the discourses of authenticity

that emerge within alternative sports, specifically focusing on skateboarding and

" " 24"

wakeboarding. Their research makes note of Sarah Thornton’s (1995) concept

of “subcultural capital,” and its implications for authenticity. The theoretical

framework for Thornton’s subcultural capital stems from the work of French

sociologist, Pierre Bourdieu. In his 1984 book, Distinction, Bourdieu describes

what he terms “cultural capital,” which he defines cultural capital as “knowledge

that is accumulated through upbringing and education which confers social

status” (Thornton, 1995, p. 10). In the development of her conception of

subcultural capital Thornton describes “hipness” as a form of subcultural and

that subcultural capital is something that “confers status on its owner in the

eyes of the relevant beholder” (1995, p. 11). Subcultural capital can take shape

in a variety of forms, from physical objects to attitudes and style. Through

utilizing the various forms of subcultural capital, skateboarders can portray

themselves as more authentic members of this subculture.

In a mutual study, Beal and Weidman (2003) also focused on issues of

authenticity with the skateboarding subculture. Based largely on the interviews

conducted in previous research (Beal, 1995) and follow up interviews from 1997

to 1998, the authors conclude that authenticity within skateboarding community

relies on two central values: participant control and de-emphasis of competition.

Through embodiment of these core values, skateboarders work to achieve an

individual identity and stylized form of skateboarding. “Each participant

identified his or her own criteria regarding training procedures, goals and style.

The internalization and personalization of these core values were central to

being accepted as a legitimate member” (Beal & Weidman, 2003). The second

" " 25"

half of their study offers a general outline of authenticity from the standpoint of

the skateboard industry, which will be the focus of this research.

Company authenticity – variables and hypotheses

The companies that produce, manufacture and distribute various

skateboarding products must maintain an authentic image within skateboarding

in order to remain competitive (Beal & Weidman, 2003). The owners and

managers of skateboarding companies make a concerted effort to maintain an

authentic image in the eyes of skateboarders, who are in fact their customers.

Beal and Weidman (2003) offer a general guideline of the strategies that

companies frequently employ in their pursuit of authenticity. Drawing on this

literature, specific variables that may influence authenticity have been selected

and identified. Due to a lack of research in this area, it is also necessary to add

new variables authenticity to those already outlined by Beal and Weidman

(2003).

Beal and Weidman (2003) provide three variables that effect authenticity

of skateboarding companies: Self-selection, Sponsorships, and Advertising.

Self-selection. Beal and Weidman (2003) argue that self-selection is

perhaps the most important factor for a skateboard company’s perceived

authenticity. According to the authors, Skateboarders will be more apt to

support companies that are owned by fellow skateboarders. In other words,

skateboarders are more likely to support those who are most like themselves,

hence the term self-selection. In this sense, self-selection has to do with the

ownership of skateboard companies. Skateboarders have an understanding of

" " 26"

the culture and maintain a better understanding of what their clientele desires.

Beal and Weidman (2003) argue that those outsiders who do not possess an

understanding of this culture try to become involved in the skateboarding

industry are often fruitless in their attempts. Drawing on this discussion, the

following hypotheses are proposed:

H1: There will be a positive relationship between the importance of self-

selection (i.e. being skater owned) and unfavorable views of Nike SB

because of their ownership

H2: There will be a negative relationship between the importance of self-

selection (i.e. being skater owned) and actual purchase behavior of

Nike SB shoes

Nike seems to epitomize the notion of ‘outsider’ to the skateboarding culture, so

it is important to investigate how Nike was able to overcome or adapt to this

concept of self-selection.

Sponsorship. For the purpose of this study, the term sponsorship has

dual meanings. Firstly, it refers to the exchange of goods or currency to

skateboarders who, in exchange, provide feedback and agree to display that

companies products. For example, Nike recently signed professional

skateboarder Eric Koston. In exchange for the currency and products from

Nike, Koston must wear Nike SB shoes in any of his public appearances or any

video content. Koston was also encouraged to provide creative input for one of

their shoe models called Nike SB Dunk (www.nikesb.com). Through giving these

sponsored skateboarders this creative freedom, it reflects positively on the

company and gives the product, and company, a more authentic image (Beal &

Weidman, 2003). Sponsorship also refers to the funding and support of both

" " 27"

local and national skateboard events. For example, Nike SB sponsored both

small/local associations, such as the California High School Skateboard Club,

and large national events like the Tampa Am and Tampa Pro contests (Higgins,

2007; Hoye, 2007). Based on the literature and popular press, the following

hypothesis is posed:

H3: There will be a positive relationship between Nike SB’s sponsorship

of skateboarders and actual purchase behavior of Nike SB shoes

H4: There will be a positive relationship between Nike SB’s sponsorship

of skateboard events and actual purchase behavior of Nike SB shoes

Advertising. The final strategy that Beal and Weidman mention is

Advertising. Beal and Weidman argue that “the skateboard industry advertises

in skateboarding magazines- and almost nowhere else” (2003, p. 346). This

statement may have been true in 2003; however, I argue that the internet now

serves as a major advertising platform for skateboarding companies as well.

Nonetheless, advertising is important to a company’s perceived authenticity

within skateboarding, and these ads must appeal to some aspects of what

skaters consider to be authentic (Beal & Weidman, 2008). Drawing on this

information, I pose the following hypotheses regarding advertising:

H5: There will be a positive relationship between Nike SB’s advertising in

skateboard magazines and actual purchase behavior of Nike SB

shoes

H6: There will be a positive relationship between Nike SB’s advertising on

skateboard websites and actual purchase behavior of Nike SB shoes

Online, Video, and Local Presence: Building upon the aspects of

authenticity outlined by Beal and Weidman (2003) for the skateboard industry, I

" " 28"

have decided to add three more variables of authenticity that are of utmost

importance within the skateboarding community: online presence, video

presence, and local presence.

Online Presence. Research on other subcultures has recently started to

focus on the way that “offline” subcultures are now migrating more towards the

internet (Wilson, 2008; Cuseo, 2006). The current literature on the skateboarding

culture, however, fails to focus on the importance of the internet. The Berrics

(www.theberrics.com) is just one example of popular skateboarding websites,

with more than six million visitors and 20 million views per month (Malakye,

2009). In today’s internet driven society, it is basically mandatory for any serious

company to maintain a functional website. Most skateboarding companies are

also using their websites as a method of displaying videos and photography of

their team riders as a way to promote their product and company. Maintaining

effective “video” and “photos” pages has become the norm for most

skateboarding websites. Almost all companies now also engage in the use of

social media to promote their company and related products, such as a

Facebook or Twitter page; therefore social media will also be used as a gauge of

online presence.

Video Presence. The niche media generated within the skateboarding

community, such as videos and photography, is almost as important as the

skateboarding itself. Full-length, 30 to 60 minute skate videos are the most

common forms of video distributed by skateboarding companies as form of

promotion for their company and its team riders. Yochim has an entire chapter

" " 29"

of her 2010 book, Skate Life, dedicated strictly to the importance of these skate

videos within this culture. She describes these videos as “widely regarded by

skateboarders as authentic… Skateboarding videos work to define

skateboarding culture; they tell skateboarders who they are” (Yochim, 2010, p.

140-141). The online forum Skate Perception, mentioned earlier, has broad

forum topics labeled: “Video and Film,” “Photography,” “Editing and Design,”

and “Video Clips.” Each of these forum topics has hundreds of thousands of

posts, discussing various aspects of this niche media

(www.skateperception.com).

Local Presence. Presence in local skateboard shops is also important for

core skateboard companies. Most successful skateboard companies avoid

selling their products in large chain stores, and instead distribute to local skate

shops throughout the country. Yochim (2010) discusses the importance of the

local skate shop within the skateboard community: “The shop operates as a

space in which individuals who might not otherwise know one another meet and

relate as skateboarders first and foremost. It is here that the community

develops and articulates the norms of the culture and its primary values” (p. 79).

Nike was very much aware of the importance of this local presence, and during

their 2002 launch developed a strategy to sell only to specialized skateboard

shops (Montgomery, 2002).

Based on this information, the following hypotheses are posited:

H7: There will be a positive relationship between Nike SB’s online

presence and actual purchase behavior of Nike SB shoes

" " 30"

H8: There will be a positive relationship between Nike SB’s video

presence and actual purchase behavior of Nike SB shoes

H9: There will be a positive relationship between Nike SB’s local

presence and actual purchase behavior of Nike SB shoes

" " 31"

Methods

Research Design

This study used a cross-sectional survey of skateboarders. The

instrument was an electronic survey that was available online to anybody with

internet access. Through surveying a sample of skateboarders, it will allow for a

numeric description of the attitudes that this population holds about authenticity

within the skateboarding industry (Cresswell, 2009). The internet is a perfect

medium for the population I hope to sample, because like skateboarders, most

internet users tend to be younger than the general population (Best & Harrison,

2009). The survey was administered on February 22

, 2011 and ran for a two-

week period. The IRB approved the study on November 29, 2010. As part of

the IRB approval, the electronic questionnaire was prefaced with a

consent/assent page. All participants were informed about the purpose of the

study as well as the risks, benefits, and confidentiality assurance. It was made

clear to participants that the survey is completely voluntary and that they can

skip any question or withdraw at any time without penalty (see Appendix A for

consent/assent form).

The survey was available on the internet through an online survey

platform where participants were able to access the questionnaire at their own

leisure. The questionnaire was also pre-tested with a small group of 15

skateboarders to work out any issues of clarity or problematic phrasing. The

use of an electronic, online survey permits both a larger sample size and greater

geographic circulation. Unlike a physical survey, online surveys have basically

" " 32"

no geographic limitations, and can be taken anywhere in the world with internet

access (Best & Harrison, 2009). This, consequently, can also be seen as a

drawback to online surveys, as the demographic backgrounds of those with

internet access may be considerably different (Best & Harrison, 2009).

Respondents were asked questions about the both the skateboarding

industry and Nike SB specifically. There was an introductory filter question,

asking if the participant considers him or herself a skateboarder. Only those

who answer yes were counted in the results. In order to increase the ability for

statistical comparisons, all questions regarding perceptions and buying behavior

were ranked on the same Likert scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly

agree). The first two sections of the questionnaire measured perceptual data

about the skateboarding industry and Nike SB. There was a smaller third

section of questions that measured behavioral data about Nike SB purchase

behavior specifically. This allowed for connections to be made from the various

aspects of authenticity to actual purchase behavior and consumer word-of-

mouth recommendations. The survey was 35 questions in length and should

have taken no longer than 15 minutes to complete (see Appendix B for survey).

Sample

The population that I hoped to sample is straightforward: skateboarders.

Anyone who skateboards or considers him or herself a skateboarder is a

member of this population. This population consists of roughly 11 million

estimated U.S. participants (Donnelly, 2008, Yochim, 2010). I used a non-

probability sample of skateboarders in hopes of attaining at least 300

" " 33"

responses, which would be desirable for statistically sound results (Shoemaker

& McCombs 2009).

Because skateboarding is largely a youth culture (Beal, 1995; Porter,

2003; Yochim, 2010), it is important that my sample included those under 18.

According to Rob Meronek (2009) at The Skatepark of Tampa, data from over

15,000 sales indicate that the average age of customers buying skate shoes

from 2001 through 2008 ranged from 13 to 22 years old. The age of customers

buying skateboard decks during this period ranged from 11 to 28 years old.

Drawing from this data, along with suggestions from the IRB, I decided that the

appropriate age range for this study would be 13 and older. Any results from

respondents under 13 years old were deleted. Because this is an online survey,

I was able to obtain responses throughout the United States and even from

other countries.

Recruitment for study

The recruitment for this study was mainly done electronically through the

internet. I utilized Facebook and other social media, along with popular

skateboarding forums to recruit participant for this study. I have a great deal of

contacts throughout the Northeast who skateboard. I sent each of them a

message individually through Facebook. I also used snowball sampling and

asked that each of them pass the message along to any friends they may have

that skateboard. The message included a brief description of the study along

with a link to the survey. I also used a variety of online skateboarding forums,

such as Skate Perception and MyBerrics.com, to post information about the

" " 34"

survey in order to gain a larger and more diverse sample. Along with electronic

recruitment, I used traditional word-of-mouth recruitment in the Syracuse and

Philadelphia areas, where I am most well connected to the skateboarding

communities.

In order to assure a useful sample size, I offered incentives for

participation. These incentives came in the form of a raffle for 9 possible prizes,

which include: 1 pair of Nike SB shoes, 1 complete skateboard, 2 skateboard

decks, 2 sets of trucks, 2 sets of wheels and 2 sets of bearings (odds of winning

are estimated at 1:30). Upon completion of the questionnaire, participants were

directed to a separate page where they could provide an e-mail address to enter

the raffle. They were made aware that entry is completely voluntary; and that

they did not have to enter. Those under 18 were also encouraged to ask

parent/guardian permission, as well as enter the e-mail of a parent/guardian.

The e-mail address was used only for the purpose of the raffle and remained

completely confidential. After the survey ran for a two-week period, 9

participants were randomly selected to receive prizes. The winners were

contacted via e-mail for prize and shipping information. Winners under the age

of 18 were asked for parent’s names and shipping information. The

confidentiality of information regarding the participants was guaranteed and

remained of utmost importance.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability in survey research refers to the consistency of measurement

that the research instrument provides (Fowler, 1988; Lipsey & Hurley, 2009).

" " 35"

The questions used in this research were clear and written in the most

understandable wording possible (Shoemaker & McCombs, 2009). Optional

wording was also provided where any confusion may occur in order to increase

reliability (Fowler, 1988). All questions regarding authenticity, the independent

variable, were closed questions measured using ordinal data in the form of a 7-

point Likert scale, increasing reliability of these questions (Fowler, 2002; Best &

Harrison, 2009). Because this is a self-administered online survey, all

respondents were given an equal opportunity to answer the questions at their

own leisure and pace. There was no pressure from time constraints or

interviewer presence, giving the respondents more control over the survey

(Couper, M. P., 2004; Best & Harrison, 2009). Therefore the reliability of this

research is relatively strong.

Although this research does address six different variables that may

affect the authenticity of skateboard companies, there may in fact be other

variables that influence perceived authenticity, which does create a possible

threat to the content validity (Cresswell, 2009). Shoemaker and McCombs (2009)

argue that the internal validity of survey research may often be lower than that of

randomized experiments. This is because causal relationships can be difficult to

establish using surveys. Another possible threat to validity may be “research

artifacts,” a term used by Strohmetz and Rosnow (2004) that describes the

uncontrollable and unintentional researcher biases that can threaten both

internal and external validity (p. 25). According to Fowler, the first and foremost

means of increasing validity is to create questions that are as reliable as

" " 36"

possible, a tactic that was emphasized in this study (1988; 2002). Because the

majority of questions referring to authenticity are subjective in nature, referring

to people’s feelings, beliefs, and attitudes, “there is no objective way of

validating the answers” (Fowler, 1988). This is also the first study of this kind,

and exploratory in nature, therefore it is difficult to establish validity of the survey

instrument and questions based on previous studies. Because this is an online

survey with no geographic limitations, threats to external validity are greatly

decreased. Through use of online recruitment methods, I was able to gain

responses from a wide demographic of skateboarders in hopes of reaching a

sample that is representative of the population as a whole.

" " 37"

Results

A total of 345 questionnaires were collected from skateboarders who

ranged in age from 13 to 55 years of age, with a mean age of 19.4 (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Ages of participants. This figure illustrates the age

range of respondents

To measure their skateboarding experience, respondents were asked how many

years they’ve been skateboarding. Those who have been skating less than one

year were asked to round up to one. The experience level of participants ranged

from 1 to 35 years, with a mean of 6.7 years (see Figure 2).

" " 38"

Figure 2. Skateboarding experience. This figure illustrates

respondents’ total years of skateboarding experience.

The majority of participants lived in the U.S., however significant portions

of participants were from Canada and other countries including: Romania,

Lithuania, Ireland, United Kingdom, Holland, Australia, and the Netherlands.

Because I did most word-of-mouth and social media recruitment in

Pennsylvania and New York, most participants came from these states - 13%

and 15.1% respectively. As expected, the vast majority of participants were

male. Out of the 281 that answered the question regarding sex, 15 (5.3%) were

female and 261 (94.7%) were male (see Appendix B, Figure 3).

Answering Research Questions

This study’s principal research question was concerned with the concept

of authenticity in skateboarding. The question specifically asked: “Which

" " 39"

aspects of a skateboard company’s authenticity are most important to

skateboarders?” Participants were asked 12 questions that measured the

importance of different variables of authenticity on a scale of 1 to 7. Product

availability in local skateshops was the most important factor for authenticity

according to participants (M = 6.62/7). Other important factors influencing

skateboard companies’ authenticity were having video and photos on their

website (M = 6.35), being skater-owned (M = 6.18), releasing full-length skate

videos (M = 6.17), sponsoring good individual skateboarders (M = 6.07), and

sponsoring small/local events (M = 6.02). The least important factors affecting

company authenticity according to skateboarders were sponsoring

large/national events (M = 4.50) and having a Facebook and/or Twitter page (M

= 4.44). These results are fairly straightforward, and it is clear to see from this

descriptive data which factors are most important in developing authenticity

among skateboarders (see Table 1 for all descriptive data

""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

"All tables were designed using the Shoemaker method (Shoemaker, Tankard, & Lasorsa 2003)."

" " 40"

Variables

Mean

It is important for a skate company to have their products available

in local skate shops

6.62

.657

300

It is important for a skate company to have videos and photos on

their website

6.35

.847

296

It is important for a skate company to be owned by a skateboarder

6.18

1.080

304

It is important for a skate company to release full length skate

videos

6.17

1.022

299

It is important for a skate company to sponsor good skateboarders

6.07

.955

301

It is important for a skate company to sponsor small/local events

6.02

.993

302

It is important for a skate company to have a good overall team

5.88

.997

300

It is important for a skate company to have a good website

5.87

1.115

300

It is important for a skate company to have advertisements in

skateboard magazines

5.50

1.214

300

It is important for a skate company to have advertisements on

skateboard websites

5.21

1.290

299

It is important for a skate company to sponsor large/national

events like X-Games, Gravity Games, and the Maloof Money

Cup

4.50

1.544

301

It is important for a skate company to have a good Facebook

and/or Twitter page

4.44

1.490

300

Table 1. Means and standard deviations for the various aspects of company authenticity in

skateboarding. All responses were coded 7 = strongly agree, 6 = agree, 5 = slightly agree, 4 =

neutral, 3 = slightly disagree, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree

The second research question focused on the example of Nike SB

skateboarding shoes specifically, and asked: “Which aspects of authenticity has

Nike SB successfully achieved within the skateboard community?” To answer

this question, skateboarders were presented with a section of questions that

were identical to those about skateboard company authenticity, but relating

specifically to the Nike SB brand. For example, instead of being asked to rate:

“It is important for a skate company to have a good overall team,” they were

asked to rate: “Nike SB has a good overall team.” Questions about Nike SB

were also ranked on the same scale of 1 – 7 as the previous questions so that

relationships could be drawn more clearly. According to the descriptive data

alone, it is clear that Nike has achieved many aspects of authenticity in

" " 41"

skateboarders’ eyes. The highest ranked aspects of authenticity achieved by

Nike SB were: sponsoring good individual skateboarders (M = 5.87/7), having a

good overall team (M = 5.82), having products available in local skate shops (M

= 5.73), and releasing good full-length skate videos (M = 5.70), having good

videos and photos on their website (M = 5.64), and having visible

advertisements in skateboard magazines (M = 5.59). These results correspond

almost perfectly to the overall marketing strategy Nike implemented in its 2002

launch, which included selling only to core skate shops, advertising only in

skateboard magazines, and sponsoring well-respected professional

skateboarders (Robertson, 2004; Jürgen & Schmid, 2008). Skateboarders also

ranked the statement “Nike SB has a good Facebook and/or Twitter page” as

the lowest response (M = 4.29), which corresponds directly to the least

important aspect of company authenticity (see Table 2 for all descriptive data).

Variables

Mean

NIKE SB sponsors good individual skateboarders

5.87

1.246

284

NIKE SB has a good overall team

5.82

1.262

284

I can find NIKE SB products in local skate shops

5.73

1.539

281

NIKE SB has released good full length skate videos

5.70

1.332

281

NIKE SB has good videos and photos on their website

5.64

1.246

275

I have seen NIKE SB advertisements in skateboard magazines

5.59

1.459

283

NIKE SB has a good website

5.42

1.343

278

I have seen NIKE SB to have advertisements on skateboard

websites

5.08

1.610

280

I have seen NIKE SB to sponsor large/national events like X-

Games, Gravity Games, and the Maloof Money Cup

4.92

1.660

284

I have seen NIKE SB to sponsor small/local events

4.34

1.860

282

NIKE SB has a good Facebook and/or Twitter page

4.29

1.375

279

Table 2. Means and standard deviations for the various aspects of company authenticity that

Nike SB has achieved. All responses were coded 7 = strongly agree, 6 = agree, 5 = slightly

agree, 4 = neutral, 3 = slightly disagree, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree

" " 42"

Hypotheses Testing

This study’s hypotheses focused on the actual purchase behavior of Nike

SB. Purchase behavior was measured in three ways: 1) past purchase behavior,

2) future purchase behavior, and 3) word-of-mouth behavior. Skateboarders

were asked whether they have bought Nike SB’s in the past, if they would buy

them in the future, and if they would recommend Nike SB to friends or other

skateboarders. In order to properly determine the relationships between the

aspects of authenticity achieved by Nike SB and actual purchase behavior of

Nike SB products, it was first necessary to determine whether there was a

significant relationship between the aspects of authenticity most important to

skateboarders (questions 3 to 14 on questionnaire) and those aspects achieved

by Nike SB (questions 15 to 26 on questionnaire). After using Pearson

Correlations, the only relationship that was not found to be statistically

significant was “sponsorship of small/local events.” The difference between all

other relationships between skateboard companies’ authenticity and Nike SB

were statistically significant at the p < .01 level (except for presence in skate

shops which was significant at the p < .05 level). Therefore the only relationship

that was not analyzed was Nike SB’s sponsorship of small/local events and

actual purchase behavior of Nike SB shoes (see Tables 3 – 7 for all correlations).

" " 43"

Variables

1. It is important for a skate company to sponsor

small/local events

.039

281

2. It is important for a skate company to sponsor

large/national events like X-Games, Gravity Games,

and the Maloof Money Cup

.291

283

3. It is important for a skate company to have a good

overall team

.327

283

4. It is important for a skate company to sponsor good

skateboarders

.267

283

5. I have seen NIKE SB to sponsor small/local events

6. I have seen NIKE SB to sponsor large/national

events like X-Games, Gravity Games, and the

Maloof Money Cup

7. NIKE SB has a good overall team

8. NIKE SB sponsors good individual skateboarders

Table 3. Pearson correlation coefficients for various aspects of sponsorship in skateboarding

and Nike SB’s sponsorship. All responses were coded 7 = strongly agree, 6 = agree, 5 = slightly

agree, 4 = neutral, 3 = slightly disagree, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree

a. p < .01

Variables

1. It is important for a skate company to have advertisements in

skateboard magazines

.237

282

2. It is important for a skate company to have advertisements on

skateboard websites

.239

278

3. I have seen NIKE SB advertisements in skateboard magazines

4. I have seen NIKE SB to have advertisements on skateboard

websites

Table 4. Pearson correlation coefficients for various aspects of advertising in skateboarding and

Nike SB’s advertising. All responses were coded 7 = strongly agree, 6 = agree, 5 = slightly

agree, 4 = neutral, 3 = slightly disagree, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree

a. p < .01

Variables

1. It is important for a skate company to have

a good website

.378

278

2. It is important for a skate company to have

videos and photos on their website

.214

272

3. It is important for a skate company to have

a good Facebook and/or Twitter page

.511

278

4. NIKE SB has a good website

5. NIKE SB has good videos and photos on

their website

6. NIKE SB has a good Facebook and/or

Twitter page

Table 5. Pearson correlation coefficients for various aspects of internet presence in

skateboarding and Nike SB’s internet presence. All responses were coded 7 = strongly agree, 6

= agree, 5 = slightly agree, 4 = neutral, 3 = slightly disagree, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree

a. p < .01

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Variables

1. It is important for a skate company to release full length skate videos

.301

279

2. NIKE SB has released good full length skate videos

Table 6. Pearson correlation coefficients for various aspects of sponsorship in skateboarding

and Nike SB’s sponsorship. All responses were coded 7 = strongly agree, 6 = agree, 5 = slightly

agree, 4 = neutral, 3 = slightly disagree, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree

a. p < .01

Variables

1. It is important for a skate company to have their products available in

local skate shops

.137

281

2. I can find NIKE SB products in local skate shops

Table 7. Pearson correlation coefficients for various aspects of sponsorship in skateboarding

and Nike SB’s sponsorship. All responses were coded 7 = strongly agree, 6 = agree, 5 = slightly

agree, 4 = neutral, 3 = slightly disagree, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree

b. p < .05

H1 and H2.

Hypothesis 1 stated that there would be a positive relationship between

the importance of self-selection (i.e. being skater owned) and unfavorable views

of Nike SB because of its ownership. This hypothesis was supported, as self-

selection and unfavorable views of Nike SB because of ownership were

positively correlated and significant at the p < .05 level (r=.149). It is important

to note that although the relationship was statistically significant, it was not a

strong relationship. Hypothesis 2, which stated that there would be a negative

relationship between the importance of self-selection (i.e. being skater owned)

and actual purchase behavior of Nike SB shoes, was not supported. Although

there was a negative relationship found between self-selection and all three

measures of actual purchase behavior, none of these relationships were

statistically significant (see Tables 8 and 9 for all correlations).

" " 45"

Variables

3. It is important for a skate company to be owned by a skateboarder

.149

286

4. I do not like NIKE SB because they are not owned by a skateboarder

Table 8. Pearson correlation coefficients for self-selection and unfavorable views of Nike SB

because of their ownership. All responses were coded 7 = strongly agree, 6 = agree, 5 = slightly

agree, 4 = neutral, 3 = slightly disagree, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree

b. p < .05

Variables

1. It is important for a skate company to be

owned by a skateboarder

-.034

281

-.043

282

.077

283

2. I have bought NIKE SB shoes before

3. I would buy NIKE SB shoes in the future

4. I would recommend NIKE SB shoes to my

friends or other skateboarders

Table 9. Pearson correlation coefficients for self-selection and measures of actual purchase

behavior. All responses were coded 7 = strongly agree, 6 = agree, 5 = slightly agree, 4 = neutral,

3 = slightly disagree, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree

H3 and H4.

Hypothesis 3 states that there will be a positive relationship between Nike

SB’s sponsorship of skateboarders and actual purchase of Nike SB shoes. This

hypothesis was supported fully with significant positive correlations between

both Nike SB’s sponsorship of individuals and Nike SB’s team overall and all

three measures of purchase behavior. All relationships were significant at the p

< .01 level (see Table 10 for all correlations). In other words, individual

skateboarders that Nike SB choose to sponsor and Nike SB’s overall team both

have a positive effect on actual purchase behavior of Nike products among

skateboarders.

Hypothesis 4 was also about sponsorship and predicted that there will be

a positive relationship between Nike SB’s sponsorship of skateboard events and

actual purchase behavior of Nike SB shoes. This hypothesis was partially

" " 46"

supported. As previously stated, there was no significant relationship between

the perceived importance of a skate company (in general) sponsoring small/local

events and Nike SB’s sponsorship of small/local events; therefore the

relationship between Nike SB’s sponsorship of small/local events and actual

purchase behavior could not be accurately measured. There were, however,

positive correlations between Nike SB’s sponsorship of large/national events

(such as X-Games and Gravity Games) and both future purchase behavior (r =

.210) and word-of-mouth recommendations (r = .185). Both relationships were

significant at the p < .01 level. It should be noted although these relationships

are significant, neither is considered strong. There was no significant

relationship between Nike SB’s sponsorship of large/national events and

previous purchase behavior (see Table 11 for all correlations).

Variables

1. NIKE SB has a good overall team

.324

280

.344

281

.344

282

2. NIKE SB sponsors good individual

skateboarders

.358

281

.352

282

.352

283

3. I have bought NIKE SB shoes before

4. I would buy NIKE SB shoes in the future

5. I would recommend NIKE SB shoes to my

friends or other skateboarders

Table 10. Pearson correlation coefficients for Nike SB’s sponsorship of skateboarders and

measures of actual purchase behavior. All responses were coded 7 = strongly agree, 6 = agree,

5 = slightly agree, 4 = neutral, 3 = slightly disagree, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree

a. p < .01

" " 47"

Variables

1. I have seen NIKE SB to sponsor

large/national events like X-Games, Gravity

Games, and the Maloof Money Cup

.047

280

.210

281

.185

282

2. I have bought NIKE SB shoes before

3. I would buy NIKE SB shoes in the future

4. I would recommend NIKE SB shoes to my

friends or other skateboarders

Table 11. Pearson correlation coefficients for Nike SB’s sponsorship of large/national

skateboard events and measures of actual purchase behavior. All responses were coded 7 =

strongly agree, 6 = agree, 5 = slightly agree, 4 = neutral, 3 = slightly disagree, 2 = disagree, 1 =

strongly disagree

a. p < .01

H5 and H6.

Hypothesis 5 predicted that there would be a positive relationship

between Nike SB’s advertising in skateboard magazines and actual purchase

behavior of Nike SB shoes. This hypothesis supported as there were weak

positive correlations between Nike SB’s advertising in skateboard magazines

and past buying behavior (r = .215), future buying behavior (r = .276), and word-

of-mouth recommendations (r = .263). All relationships were significant at the p

< .01 level (see Table 12 for all correlations).

Like H5, Hypothesis 6 was also about advertising, and predicted that

there would be a positive relationship between Nike SB’s advertising on

skateboard websites and actual purchase behavior of Nike SB shoes. This

hypothesis was also supported. There were weak positive correlations between

Nike SB’s advertising on skateboard websites and past buying behavior (r =

.142), future buying behavior (r = .205), and word-of-mouth recommendations (r

= .248). All relationships were significant at the p < .01 level (see Table 13 for all

correlations).

" " 48"

Variables

1. I have seen NIKE SB advertisements in

skateboard magazines

.215

281

.276

282

.263

283

2. I have bought NIKE SB shoes before

3. I would buy NIKE SB shoes in the future

4. I would recommend NIKE SB shoes to my

friends or other skateboarders

Table 12. Pearson correlation coefficients for Nike SB’s advertising in skateboard magazines

and measures of actual purchase behavior. All responses were coded 7 = strongly agree, 6 =

agree, 5 = slightly agree, 4 = neutral, 3 = slightly disagree, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree

a. p < .01

Variables

1. I have seen NIKE SB advertisements on

skateboard websites

.142

278

.205

279

.248

280

2. I have bought NIKE SB shoes before

3. I would buy NIKE SB shoes in the future

4. I would recommend NIKE SB shoes to my

friends or other skateboarders

Table 13. Pearson correlation coefficients for Nike SB’s advertising on skateboard websites and

measures of actual purchase behavior. All responses were coded 7 = strongly agree, 6 = agree,

5 = slightly agree, 4 = neutral, 3 = slightly disagree, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree

a. p < .01

Hypothesis 7 predicted that there would be a positive relationship

between Nike SB’s online presence and actual purchase behavior of Nike SB

shoes. Respondents were asked three questions related to Nike SB’s online

presence. They were asked if Nike SB has a good website, if Nike SB has good

videos and photos on its website, and if Nike SB has a good Facebook and/or

Twitter page. When asked only about Nike SB’s website in general, there were

significant positive relationships to all three forms of buying behavior (r = .280, r

= .324, and r = .375 respectively). There was also a significant relationship

between the videos and photos on Nike SB’s website and all three measures of

purchase behavior of Nike SB shoes (r = .301, r = .333, and r = .354

respectively). When asked about the Nike SB’s Facebook and/or Twitter page,

" " 49"

there were weak positive relationships discovered between two of the three

measures of actual purchase behavior: future purchase behavior (r = .194) and

word-of-mouth recommendations (r = .267). There was not a significant

correlation found with past purchase behavior. This is not surprising, however,

as social media was the least important factor for both skateboard companies’

authenticity and Nike SB’s achieved authenticity alike. All relationships

discovered in H7 were statistically significant at the p < .01 level. Therefore,

other than social media’s effect on past purchase behavior, H7 was supported

(see Table 14 for all correlations).

Variables

1. NIKE SB has a good website

.280

277

.324

277

.375

278

2. NIKE SB has good videos and photos on

their website

.301

273

.333

275

.354

275

3. NIKE SB has a good Facebook and/or

Twitter page

.092

277

.194

278

.267

279

4. I have bought NIKE SB shoes before

5. I would buy NIKE SB shoes in the future

6. I would recommend NIKE SB shoes to my

friends or other skateboarders

Table 14. Pearson correlation coefficients for Nike SB’s online presence and measures of actual

purchase behavior. All responses were coded 7 = strongly agree, 6 = agree, 5 = slightly agree, 4

= neutral, 3 = slightly disagree, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree

a. p < .01

H8.

Hypothesis 8 predicted that there would be a positive relationship

between Nike SB’s video presence and actual purchase behavior of Nike SB

shoes. Video presence was measured by a question regarding the Nike SB’s

released full-length skate videos. This hypothesis was also supported, with a

significant positive correlation between Nike SB’s video presence and past

purchase behavior (r = .326), future purchase behavior (r = .370), and word-of-

" " 50"

mouth recommendations (r = .352). All relationships were significant at the p <

.01 level (see Table 15 for all correlations).

Variables

1. NIKE SB has released good full length skate

videos

.326

278

.370

279

.352

280

2. I have bought NIKE SB shoes before

3. I would buy NIKE SB shoes in the future

4. I would recommend NIKE SB shoes to my

friends or other skateboarders

Table 15. Pearson correlation coefficients for Nike SB’s video presence and measures of actual

purchase behavior. All responses were coded 7 = strongly agree, 6 = agree, 5 = slightly agree, 4

= neutral, 3 = slightly disagree, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree

a. p < .01

H9.

The final hypothesis of this study, H9, predicted a positive relationship

between Nike SB’s local presence and actual purchase behavior of Nike SB

shoes. Participants ranked local presence as the most important factor for

skateboard companies (6.62 out of 7), and Nike SB was fairly successful at

achieving this according to the respondents (5.73 out of 7). This hypothesis was

indeed fully supported, as there was a positive relationship between Nike SB’s

local presence and all three aspects of actual purchase behavior. The

relationship between Nike SB’s local presence and past purchase behavior (r =

.353), future purchase behavior (r = .400) and word-of-mouth recommendations

(r = .357) were all significant at the p < .01 level (see Table 16 for all

correlations).

" " 51"

Variables

1. I can find NIKE SB shoes in local skate

shops

.353

279

.400

280

.357

281

2. I have bought NIKE SB shoes before

3. I would buy NIKE SB shoes in the future

4. I would recommend NIKE SB shoes to my

friends or other skateboarders

Table 16. Pearson correlation coefficients for Nike SB’s local presence and measures of actual

purchase behavior. All responses were coded 7 = strongly agree, 6 = agree, 5 = slightly agree, 4

= neutral, 3 = slightly disagree, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree

a. p < .01

While analyzing the data, another interesting relationship surfaced. There

was a very strong positive relationship found between past purchase behavior

and both future purchase behavior (r = .613) and word-of-mouth

recommendations (r = .633), which were both significant at the p < .01 level.

These relationships most likely speak to physical quality of the shoes that Nike

SB manufactures, which is one aspect that was not specifically covered in this

study. Skateboarders who have purchased Nike SB shoes in the past were

much more likely to become repeat buyers and recommend the shoes to friends

and other skateboarders, therefore Nike seems to be producing quality

performing skateboard shoes that are meeting skateboarders’ demands. As

previously mentioned, during Nike’s initial entry into the skateboarding market, it

had a strong advertising campaign but the actual shoes that simply weren’t up

to par in terms of performance (Jürgen & Schmid, 2008). Nike seems to have

addressed this product issue by developing high performing skateboard shoes.

Now the most important challenge for Nike SB may be getting its shoes on the

feet of skateboarders who haven’t tried them yet.

" " 52"

Other Responses

The most interesting aspect of the survey was by far the comments left

by skateboarders in the final open-ended question. Here participants were free

to leave their own responses and comments. Judging from the numerous

detailed comments left by respondents, it is clear that the skateboard

community is extremely opinionated; especially about this is a topic, which

seems to be at the center of a great deal of debate. There were an

overwhelming number of responses written by skateboarders, ranging from few

words to a few paragraphs.

Many of the responses spoke to the quality and performance of Nike

SB’s shoes – a topic that was previously mentioned in the results section. One

respondent mentioned that he/she did not mind the high price tag of Nike SB

shoes because they can perform and last for a month or longer. Another skater

remarked that “I’m a big fan of Nike SB, they may not be core, but they make

great shoes.” Many skateboarders mentioned the performance specific models

of Nike SB, such as the Nike SB Stefan Janoski and the Nike SB Blazer. One

respondent referred to the Janoski as “the best skate shoe ever made.” Another

participant mentioned the importance of being skater-owned (i.e. self-selection)

vs. performance and style, stating that “Although Nike SB is not skater owned,

they still make some of the best skate shoes, which is the most important part.

As much as I love supporting skater owned companies, I’d rather skate

something more comfortable and stylish.”

" " 53"

Another frequently mentioned topic was the importance of “giving back

to the skateboard community.” Many participants mentioned that it was

important for Nike to give back to the skateboard community if it wants to be

accepted as an authentic skateboard company. Whether or not Nike has

actually supported the skateboard community and given back is unclear, as

there were mixed responses. One participant claims: “Nike SB is to focused on

having a super star team instead of focusing on being part of the skateboarding

community.” Another respondent makes a similar claim, stating: “I don’t mind

Nike SB being a big company and coming into the skateboard industry, but only

as long as they give back to the community as well.” From this response it is

unclear whether Nike has in fact given back, but it is obviously a key factor.

Other participants noted the importance of “giving back,” and believe that Nike

SB does actually contribute positively to the skateboard community. For

example, one participant says that Nike SB “are a terrific brand, and try to give

back to skaters.” The exact meaning of “giving back,” however, is difficult to

determine and could come in a variety of possible forms. This concept of giving

back to the skateboard community is something that is important to clarify, and

should be looked at in advancing skateboard studies.

Finally, another topic of frequent mention and debate was the ownership

of skateboard companies and Nike SB’s ownership. This topic was at the

center of H1 and H2 of this research and was a major theme of Beal and

Weidman’s (2003) study of authenticity in the skateboard industry. Responses

about ownership of skateboard companies and Nike SB’s ownership were

" " 54"

extremely varied and ranged to the far ends of the spectrum. Many respondents

were aware that Nike SB employs skateboarders and those from within the

skateboard industry on their staff. This was, after all, one of Nike’s strategies to

successfully integrate into skateboarding, which did not go unnoticed by many

of these skateboarders. One participant made note of this, stating: “although

Nike is a non-skateboarder owned company they have so many people hired

from other big skate companies to run that dept., so it kind of is skateboarder

ran.” This indicates that actual “ownership” may not be as important as the

management of the company, and as long as skateboarders are involved in

running daily activities at the company, it may be considered authentic by

skateboarders. Another respondent also commented on this theme mentioning:

“Nike SB may not be ‘OWNED’ by skateboarders, but the company itself is run

by skateboarders. Nike is a huge corporate company, but they've handed the

whole ‘SB’ chain down to skateboarders to operate for skateboarders.” Other

skateboarders, however, were more critical of Nike and other large companies

that may be trying to co-opt skateboarding for monetary gains. One participant

remarked “I would rather support a skateboarder owned company than Nike SB.

Buy from local skate shops and support the real skateboarders of the USA.”

Many other participants felt that it was important to support the skateboarding

scene by purchasing from skateboarder owned companies as well. Many

participants agreed that ownership by skateboarders was important, leaving

simple statements such as, “SUPPORT LOCAL COMPANIES,” “Core

skateboarding companies are what keeps skateboarding alive,” and “DON’T DO

" " 55"

IT.” It is obvious that ownership is a topic of great debate, and judging from the

wide range of responses gathered, future research on ownership and

authenticity could provide more insight into this theme.

" " 56"

Discussion and Conclusion

Although this research has provided many useful insights into the

skateboarding culture and its concept of authenticity, it has opened the doors

for even further investigation. The case of Nike SB seems to be a consistent

point of debate in the skateboarding world, and grows increasingly fascinating

as Nike’s presence in skateboarding continues to develop (Jürgen & Schmid,

2008; Yochim, 2010). As one would expect, skateboarders are not entirely one-

sided about the concept of authenticity and the entrance of Nike SB into the

skateboarding market. There is not a surefire method to achieving authenticity

within skateboarding, but there are definitely key factors that skateboarders look

for in authentic companies. As the skateboarding culture evolves, the concept

of authenticity within skateboarding will most likely change as well. In order for

a skate company to be successful, it need to be aware of these changes and

remain in tune with its core customers – skateboarders.

Discussion of Results

Discussing research questions

The most straightforward and perhaps most important information that

can be drawn from this study is the answer to RQ1: Which aspects of a

skateboard company’s authenticity are most important to skateboarders?

Respondents clearly valued the importance of skateboard companies having a

local presence by selling their products in core local skate shops. Local

presence was rated as the most important factor for skateboard companies (M

= 6.62/7), with the lowest standard deviation (SD = .657). Therefore, any

" " 57"

company hoping to remain successful in skateboarding should make it a point

to have its products available in local skate shops. Because the questions did

not refer to shoe companies specifically, but “skate companies,” it is rational to

assume that this applies to any company in the skateboard industry.

Nike was clearly aware of the importance of having products available in

skateboard shops during its 2002 launch of the Nike SB line, and made it a point

to limit distribution only core skateboard shops (Montgomery, 2002b;

Robertson, 2004). Nike has stayed true to this strategy and continues to keep

its Nike SB line available only in skate shops. When asked about availability of

Nike SB products, participants agreed (M = 5.73/7) that they could find Nike SB

products in local skate shops. One participant even remarked on this by stating:

“Although Nike SB is not skater owned, I respect that they sell their shoes to

‘Core’ shops only.”

Previous research has shown that various forms of media such as video,

photography, and websites are very important within skateboarding (Beal, 1996;

Beal & Weidman, 2003; Malakye, 2009; Yochim, 2010). The results from this

research have greatly supported this notion as well. Therefore companies that

wish to remain authentic in the eyes of skateboarders, should make an effort to

produce media that skateboarders have grown to expect – such as full length

videos. As the internet has grown to play a much larger role within

skateboarding, many companies are also beginning to focus heavily on

releasing online video clips. Obviously mindful of the importance of online

media, Nike SB made a big splash in the skateboarding world when it released a

" " 58"

free high-definition online stream of the full-length video, Debacle, in 2009. This

was the first time any skateboard company released a full-length video online in

high-definition, for free nonetheless (Yan, 2009).

This research demonstrates that Nike SB has indeed been successful in

its creation and distribution skate specific media, including a number of full-

length videos. According to this research most participants agreed that Nike SB

has released good full-length skate videos (M = 5.70/7) and that Nike SB has

good videos and photos on their website (M = 5.64/7). These responses were

ranked within the top four in the Nike SB set of questions, corresponding with

top four factors regarding skate company authenticity in general.

Another important finding was that Beal and Weidman’s (2003) factor,

self-selection, was also ranked as the 3

most important factor by

skateboarders (M = 6.18/7). Beil and Weidman state that self-selection is

“arguably the most important factor affecting a company’s success” (p. 346).

According to Beal and Weidman (2003), self-selection also suggests that

professional skateboarders have the best chance to maintain a successful

skateboarding company, and that outsiders are normally unsuccessful.

The importance of self-selection was one of the hurdles that Nike SB had

to overcome within the skateboarding community. In previous interviews, Nike

SB global marketing manager, Kevin Immamura stated that that bringing people

in from within the skateboard industry was one of Nike’s most important tactics

(Gumz, 2006). Some respondents even commented on this issue in the section

for “other responses.” Responses such as: “I think its okay that Nike is owned

" " 59"

by a non-skateboarder as long as the daily team activities are run by a

skateboarder,” and “Nike SB may not be ‘OWNED’ by skateboarders, but the

company itself are runned by skateboarders [sic]” demonstrate that some

skateboarders are aware and accepting of Nike SB’s strategy to hire from within

the skateboarding industry. According to this research then, any company

hoping to successfully break into skateboarding should make it a priority to

employ skateboarders at top levels within its organization. Recruiting form

within the culture could also, hypothetically, prove successful to companies

trying to enter into other sport subcultures such as snowboarding, surfing, and

BMX.

According to this research, another factor of authenticity that Beal and

Weidman (2003) listed in their research, advertising, was also somewhat

important to skateboarders. Having advertisements in skateboard magazines

(M = 5.50) and having advertisements on skateboard websites (M = 5.21) were

both ranked above 5/7 in importance for skateboard companies. It’s important

to note, however, that these factors were noticeably low on the list (9

and 10

respectively). Therefore, although it is still important for a skateboard company

to maintain a presence through advertising in skate specific media, in the

present study it is not as important as previously described by Beal and

Weidman (2003).

Finally, a very interesting finding was the lack of importance

skateboarders assigned to a company’s social media presence to

skateboarders. In today’s era of new media, companies are well aware of the

" " 60"

importance of social-media marketing. The use of social media as a marketing

tool by large companies has not gone unnoticed by the academic community,

and has already been the subject matter of several books (Colliander & Dahlén,

2011). As social media has largely been popular among youth and young

adults, especially the age range 18 – 29, it makes sense that skateboarding

companies would want to utilize the potential of social media websites (Pew

Research Center, 2011). As noted in the results section, when asked about the

Nike SB’s social media presence, there were weak positive relationships

discovered between two of the three measures of actual purchase behavior:

future purchase behavior (r = 194) and word-of-mouth recommendations (r =

267). There was not a significant correlation found with past purchase behavior.

Although important, social media is still relatively new, and perhaps the absence

of a relationship between Nike SB’s social media and past purchase behavior is

simply due to the infancy of social media in general.

Discussing the hypotheses

Except for H2, all hypotheses of this research were supported to some

degree, with six of the nine being fully supported. It is important to note,

however, that most of these hypotheses were supported by weak (although

significant) relationships. The hypotheses with the strongest significant

relationships were H3, H7, H8, and H9.

Hypothesis 3 states that there will be a positive relationship between Nike

SB’s sponsorship of skateboarders and actual purchase of Nike SB shoes. This

hypothesis is important because it draws on brand theory, and the idea that a

" " 61"

brand’s personality can be exemplified through ‘celebrity sponsorships’ (Aaker,

1996). In the case of skateboarding, the celebrities are the teams of

professional and amateur skateboarders that companies sponsor for

promotional purposes. It is no secret that successful skateboarding companies

will seek out the most popular and talented skateboarders to represent their

product (Beal & Weidman, 2003; Jürgen & Schmid, 2008; Yochim, 2010). This

practice dates back to the beginnings of modern skateboarding with the

notorious Dogtown Z-Boys, who helped put the Zephyr Surfboard Shop on the

map with their extraordinary skateboarding skills (Yochim, 2010). Nike was

obviously aware of the importance of sponsoring top-name skateboarders,

acquiring some of the best amateur and professional skateboarders for its team.

Many, however, consider the 2004 acquisition of Paul Rodriguez Jr. to be the

most important turning point for Nike SB (Berg, 2005; Jürgen & Schmid, 2008;

SkateboardingMagazine.com, 2010).

According to the results here, Nike SB’s sponsorship of individual

skateboarders and the team as a whole both had positive effects on all three

aspects of purchase behaviors of respondents. Participants who felt that Nike

SB sponsored good skateboarders and/or had a good overall team were more

likely to have purchased Nike SB shoes in the past, purchase Nike SB shoes in

the future, and recommend Nike SB shoes to friends. This speaks a great deal

to theory of brand personality, and the importance in skateboarding of having

credible personalities representing and wearing your company’s products

(Aaker, 1996). Therefore, any company hoping to successfully break into the

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skateboarding market should make it a priority to develop a team of respected

and well-known skateboarders.

Hypothesis 7 predicted that there would be a positive relationship

between Nike SB’s online presence and actual purchase behavior of Nike SB

shoes. Online presence was measured by three variables: Nike SB’s website,

the photos and videos on Nike SB’s website, and Nike SB’s Facebook/Twitter

pages. The strongest relationships for actual purchasing behavior applied to

Nike SB’s website and the photos and video on Nike SB’s website. This finding

indicates that skateboarders are actually visiting the company’s website and

consuming the media presented on the website, leading to positive effects on

actual sales of product. What’s interesting is that on Nike SB’s website, one

cannot actually purchase any products; there are just descriptions of shoes and

locations of stores that carry Nike SB products. Therefore skateboarders aren’t

even using the website to purchase the product, and still have to physically

travel to purchase Nike SB shoes after visiting the website. While there was

also a positive relationship between Nike SB’s social media presence and both

future purchase behavior and word-of-mouth recommendations, the

relationships were both fairly weak. This isn’t surprising, however, as social

media was rated as the least important factor for skate company authenticity,

and the lowest factor of authenticity actually achieved by Nike SB.

Hypothesis 8 predicted that there would be a positive relationship

between Nike SB’s video presence and actual purchase behavior of Nike SB

shoes. Yochim (2010) focused a great deal of her research on the importance of

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skateboarding videos within the skateboard culture. Yochim (2010) states that

skate videos are: “A central element of the culture… skateboarding videos work

to define skateboarding culture; they tell skateboarders who they are” (142).

This is clearly an area of skateboarding culture Nike SB has not ignored,

releasing three full-length videos, two tour videos, and one promotional video

since 2004 (SkateVideoSite.com, 2011). According to this research, Nike SB’s

release of full-length videos was successful, as there was a strong positive

relationship between opinions of Nike SB’s videos and all three forms of

purchase behavior. Those participants who felt Nike SB has released good

skateboarding videos were more likely to have purchased Nike SB shoes in the

past, purchase Nike SB shoes in the future, and recommend Nike SB shoes to

friends. Another interesting discovery is that the strongest relationship was

found in future purchases, indicating that Nike SB skateboard videos have an

enduring effect on viewers and those who have seen the videos plan on buying

the shoes in the future, even if they haven’t purchased them yet.

Lastly, H9 predicted a positive relationship between Nike SB’s local

presence and actual purchase behavior of Nike SB shoes. As discussed earlier,

the variable local presence is in reference to Nike SB’s availability in local skate

shops. Overall, the relationship between local presence and actual purchase

behavior was the strongest relationship discovered. The strength of this

relationship makes complete sense, though, as local presence was the highest

rated variable of skate company authenticity by participants of this research.

Although Nike SB’s local availability was rated 3

by participants, it is clear that

" " 64"

those who could find Nike SB products easily in local skateboard shops were by

far more likely to purchase and recommend the shoes to friends. As previously

stated, local presence was a part of Nike SB’s strategy since the introduction of

the line in 2002, and remains critical to Nike’s continued success in the

skateboard community (Montgomery, 2002).

Weaknesses and Strengths

This research is by no means perfect, and it is important to clarify the

possible weaknesses of this study. This study, after all, is exploratory in nature

and like any nascent research there are bound to be some weaknesses.

Revealing the weak points of this study will also help strengthen any future

research in this area.

Weaknesses

One conceivable weakness of this research is that the survey was

conducted strictly online. While online research has many advantages, Wright

(2005) discusses some of the drawbacks of online survey research. He focuses

on the problems of sampling that can arise from online surveys. As mentioned

in the Methods section, gaining an accurate sample can prove difficult with

online research, as people with certain demographic backgrounds, geographic

locations, and socioeconomic status are more likely to have internet access

(Wright, 2005; Best & Harrison, 2009). Wright (2005) discusses another possible

drawback of online recruitment and how some online communities, bulletin

boards, and forums can actually view invitations for online research as offensive

or “spam,” leading to lower participation rates than anticipated. This problem

" " 65"

did in fact occur during the recruitment process, and the invitation for this

research survey was deleted from one skateboarding forum, as it was deemed

spam.

Another potential weakness of this study is the possibility of priming

within the questionnaire. Feldman (1995) describes the phenomenon of priming

within survey research and how: “categories or information that have been

recently used are more likely to be retrieved in response to a new question” (p.

260). Therefore, recovery of information from previous questions can potentially

alter answers to subsequent questions (Feldman, 1995). The first set of

questions focused on skateboard companies in general, hoping to answer RQ1:

Which aspects of a skateboard company’s authenticity are most important to

skateboarders? The second set of questions was identical to the first, except

the questions focused specifically on Nike SB, in order to answer RQ2: Which

aspects of authenticity has Nike SB successfully achieved within the skateboard

community? It is quite possible that by answering the first set of questions,

about the skateboard industry as a whole, participants’ answers to the second

set of questions, about Nike SB specifically, could have been affected

somehow. Tourangeau and Rasinksi (1988), however, stress that priming does

not actually generate a specific desired response, and only increases the

likelihood that a previous recollection will be triggered.

An additional perceived weakness could be that the question regarding

social media presence may be deemed slightly insufficient. The question asked

only about a company’s Facebook and Twitter page. While Facebook and

" " 66"

Twitter are both extremely popular social media websites, there are obviously

other popular platforms social media. It is important to note, however, that most

companies do in fact utilize Facebook and Twitter as the two main social media

platforms to reach consumers (Porterfield, 2010). Also, one must understand

that the goal of the question was not to measure social media, but to act as one

measure of the variable ‘online presence.’

Strengths

There are a number of conceivable strengths to this study as well. As

mentioned earlier, this research is primarily exploratory in nature and could be

considered the foundation for future research in this area. Research on

subcultures is limited, and much of the existing research on subcultures has

focused on cultures of music, style, and dance (e.g. Hesmondhalgh, 2005;

Wheaton, 2007; McArther, 2008). This research is helping to advance the small

amount of existing research on the skateboarding culture, while also pushing

studies of subcultures into new territory by focusing on the theme of authenticity

within skateboarding.

The foremost strength of this research, is the fact that this is the first

quantitative study of the skateboard community to date, as all other research

has been qualitative in nature (Beal, 1995; Beal, 1996; Beal & Weidman, 2003;

Donnelly, 2008; Irvine & Taysom, 1998; Németh, 2004; Németh, 2006; Porter,

2003; Yochim, 2010). This research is truly the first of its kind, and the

quantitative data that has been gathered provides a base for future studies as

well as potential for further data mining.

" " 67"

The sample for this study is also much more diverse and wide-ranging

than previous qualitative studies of skateboarders, which focused on small

specific geographic locations. Beal’s (1995) pioneering study of skateboarders

took place in Jamestown and Welton, Colorado, while more recently Yochim

(2010) focused on the small Ann Arbor Michigan skateboarding community.

With no geographic limitations, this research was successfully able to cover a

much wider range of skateboarders, even reaching those outside of the United

States.

Another strength of the study are the results overall. Through this

research, clear lines can be drawn about authenticity for companies in the

skateboard industry. Beal and Weidman (2003) were the first to discuss

authenticity of skateboard companies. In their research, the authors present

three separate approaches that skateboard companies utilize to remain

authentic: self-selection, sponsorship, and advertising. Beal and Weidman

(2003), however, presented these concepts as fact, with no actual input from

skateboarders. This research examined these three variables, as well as others,

from the perspective of skateboarders. Drawing on the opinions of 345

skateboarders from all over the world, this research was able to clearly present

which aspects of company authenticity were indeed most important to

skateboarders.

Role of the Researcher

A last strength of this study could be considered the role of the

researcher. I have been skateboarding for well over a decade, and as both

" " 68"

media scholar and skateboarder I cannot help but to be fascinated in the

relationship between the skateboarding community and various forms of media.

The literature in this area seems to be extremely rare, and it is apparent that this

is a topic rich with possibilities for important and original research. By and

large, all previous research on the skateboard community has been done by

outsiders with only slight connections into the culture (Beal, 1995; Beal, 1996;

Donnelly, 2008; Irvine & Taysom, 1998; Németh, 2004; Németh, 2006; Yochim,

2010). Yochim (2010) discusses this matter in her book:

Despite my 14-year involvement with the skateboarding and

BMXing communities, I remain a relative outsider. I am loath to

admit that I operate in this community principally as an observer…

I have little agency within the group… it is clearly their world (p. 5).

Unlike Yochim, I am not an observer or outsider. I am a part of the ‘world’ she is

describing and I feel that my position within the skateboard community adds a

much greater depth, accuracy, and integrity to my research. Having been

skateboarding for 13 years, I have actually witnessed the arrival of Nike SB into

skateboarding firsthand and had many discussions with fellow skateboarders on

this topic. I personally know how controversial the entrance of Nike SB and

other large companies into skateboarding is for this culture, which is why I felt

this would be such an interesting topic to investigate.

Future Research

Like many other research studies, this project was initially meant to be a

much larger undertaking. Originally, the plan for this research was a case study

" " 69"

utilizing a mixed methods approach. The case study would have included a

survey of skateboarders, interviews with Nike SB staff members, and textual

analysis of Nike SB advertising. I soon realized that this was simply far too large

of an undertaking for a single study. This is an area that has hardly been

covered in previous research, and I felt it was sufficient to focus on a single

aspect of the original case study: a quantitative survey of skateboarders.

Because this research is truly the first of its kind, there is a great deal of

potential for future research. This research was largely exploratory in nature,

with specific variables of authenticity laid out for respondents. Obviously, the

variables of authenticity presented within this study are not the only strategies

companies employ to remain authentic within skateboarding. This was

however, a study of a youth population and the survey had to be limited to a

certain amount of questions or the dropout rate may have been too great.

Therefore, one option for future research would be to examine an entirely

different set of potential variables of authenticity. Afterwards, those results

could be examined, and even compared to the results from this research.

A second option would be to develop one or more of the variables from

this study even further. As an initial study, this research was not able to delve to

deeply into the intricacies of each variable presented. Therefore, future research

into a few, or even one, of these variables could prove to be highly promising.

For example, one could explore the concept of self-selection alone, as the

participants of this research rated it the one of the most important aspect for

company authenticity. As one of Beal and Weidman’s (2003) original three

" " 70"

values of authenticity in the skateboarding industry, further investigation into

self-selection would also support the development of previous research as well.

Social media would also be an area worth further exploration within the

action sports industry. Interestingly, the participants of this research rated

having a good Facebook and/or Twitter page the least important aspect of

authentic skateboarding companies. In the age of new media, with most

companies striving to strengthen their social media presence, it is fascinating

that a youth culture, such as skateboarding, rated social media so low in

importance. Another interesting point to note is that since the survey was

administered, Nike SB made an effort to revamp their Facebook page in May

2011 (Freshness Mag, 2011). Nike SB even recruited well-known SLAP

Magazine writer Mark Whiteley to spearhead the new fan page; another example

of Nike hiring from within the skateboard industry (SLAP Magazine, 2011). At

the time of this writing, the Nike SB Facebook page was at 456,584 “likes”

(http://www.facebook.com/NikeSkateboarding) and its Twitter account has

15,425 followers (http://twitter.com/nikesb), a clear indicator that Nike has made

tremendous strides in its social media presence. It may be interesting to see

whether skateboarders’ opinions on the importance of social media have

changed since this research was conducted. It seems apparent that further

investigation into the usage of social media within the skateboard industry, or

even Nike SB’s social media presence alone, could prove to be a productive

route for future research.

" " 71"

Another possible direction for future research would be to see whether

the results of this research would remain consistent with another product or

company within skateboarding. While this study focused on skateboarding

shoes, and a large company that was able to successfully enter into the

skateboarding market, there are other skateboarding products and companies

that could prove worth investigating. Since Nike SB’s foray into the

skateboarding market, other mainstream shoe companies such as Adidas and

Converse have experienced similar success within skateboarding.

There is also vast potential for further expansion on this research through

qualitative research methods. As previously stated, the original concept for this

research entailed interviews with Nike SB staff and textual analysis of Nike SB

advertisements. Looking into these two options could be the next route for

future research.

During the early stages of this research, I attempted to reach several Nike

SB staff members, including a very key person: global marketing manager,

Kevin Immamura. I actually received responses from Immamura and one other

prominent staff member. In both cases, however, after I sent a list of possible

questions all communication ceased. I sent two follow up e-mails to both and

even tried calling, but after no progress I decided to move on. Perhaps, after

being presented with the results of this research or through different

approaches, key Nike SB staff members would be willing to participate in

interviews. Interviews can offer an extensive amount of information and insight

into a topic that other forms of research simply don’t offer (Amis, 2005). In-

" " 72"

depth interviews are commonly used as one of several methods employed

within this type of research, and serve as a “construction site of knowledge.”

(Marshall & Rossman, 142).

Analyzing the advertisements that Nike SB has released could also prove

to be a productive addition to this research project for the future.

Advertisements serve as an important text within this example because they are

artifacts that are produced by Nike SB and located within the niche magazines

that the skateboarding culture consumes. Beal and Weidman (2003) note that

the skateboarding industry largely advertises strictly in niche skateboarding

magazines – “and almost nowhere else” (p. 346). Although since this claim in

2003, advertising within skateboarding has started to move towards the internet,

a majority of advertising is still focused within these niche magazines. Also,

many times the ads seen on the internet are simply digital replications of the

print advertisements. These advertisements will most likely contain little actual

text, and would therefore be coded for the visual imagery that is present.

Hesse-Biber & Leavy (2006) and McKee (2003) describe the necessary

procedures for coding images for any themes that may arise.

One could even take the overarching concept of this research and

explore authenticity within other sport subcultures, such as surfing,

snowboarding, BMX, or motocross. It could prove worthwhile to see where the

similarities and differences for company authenticity are for different sport

subcultures. Skateboarding is just one of many ‘action sports,’ and

investigation into other sport subcultures could help to advance the small

" " 73"

amount of academic literature in this area. By itself, skateboarding is a $4.78

billion annual industry with 11 million estimated U.S. participants (Donnelly,

2008, Yochim, 2010). The study of company authenticity within these individual

sport subcultures could prove valuable for marketing and advertising companies

as well.

Conclusion

Like other subcultures, skateboarding is a relatively young culture, in a

dual sense. Not only is skateboarding largely a youth culture, with a majority of

participants under the age of 18, but skateboarding itself has only existed for a

little over a half of a century. Also similarly to other youth cultures,

skateboarding is also constantly changing and evolving.

Brooke (1999) talks about the timeline of skateboarding in terms of four

“waves” that have taken place since skateboarding beginnings in the late 1950s.

Brooke’s Concrete Wave, however, was written in 1999, and it is realistic to

argue that skateboarding has entered the “fifth wave,” since then. Thanks in

part to Television shows such as Jackass, Viva La Bam, Rob and Big, and Rob

Dyrdek’s Fantasy Factory, and an explosion in internet specific skateboard

content, skateboarding has changed dramatically since the 1990s. This new

“fifth wave” of skateboarding seems to have taken the skateboard community

from VCRs and DVD players to the internet, and the considerable success of

skateboarding websites like The Berrics (http://www.theberrics.com) and

skateboarding forums like Skate Perception (http://www.skateperception.com)

is proof that skateboard companies need to adapt to these changes.

" " 74"

As I write the conclusion to this research, the world of skateboarding

continues to evolve. Nike SB is still a power player in the skateboarding

industry, and if it continues to be seen as authentic in the eyes of skateboarders

it will no doubt remain successful.

As mentioned in the statement of purpose, one feature of Nike SB that

was purposefully left out of this study was the physical quality of the shoe. As

many respondents made clear in their comments, Nike SB makes a good

skateboarding shoe. I was discussing this research with a fellow skateboarder,

who said to me: “I wasn’t a big fan of Nike at first, but I tried their shoes out and

they really are amazing for skateboarding.” What is interesting to me about this

statement, which is also suggested by many participants of this research, is the

“but.” It is no secret that Nike did not have the greatest fan base when entering

the skateboarding market in the late 90s and early 2000s, yet it somehow

managed to get its shoes onto the feet of skateboarders (Jürgen & Schmid,

2008). If somebody is not a big fan of Nike, why would they try Nike SB shoes

out in the first place?

I still remember when the Nike SB shoes began to appear on the feet of

skateboarders in the early 2000s. I would overhear conversations with these

alleged ‘traitors’ needing to defend their choice to wear Nike shoes to other

skaters. Personally, this is the reason why feel that what Nike did was so very

incredible, and why I chose to investigate Nike SB specifically. Skateboarders

had to make the choice to go against the grain of their own culture, facing

inevitable criticism from fellow skateboarders. This was really the challenge that

" " 75"

Nike needed to overcome within skateboarding. Every single skateboarder who,

for one reason or another, tried on a pair of Nike SB shoes during this time was

a major victory for Nike.

There is a great deal to be learned from this research. Clearly authenticity

within skateboarding is not a subject that is cut and dry. There is no “magical

formula” for winning over the skateboard community. This study does,

however, dive into the murky waters of authenticity within the skateboarding

culture and begin to clarify which aspects of a company’s authenticity are most

important to skateboarders. There are many questions still to be answered and

many avenues left for exploration through future research.

As skateboarding culture continues to grow and evolve, those interested

in marketing to this culture need to be aware of these changes. If companies

wish to remain authentic in the eyes of skateboarders, they need to continuously

pay attention to what is important to skateboarders. In a similar vein, the little

academic research that is focused on the skateboarding culture is by and large

rather outdated. In general, there is definitely a lack of research focused on

sport subcultures, and this is an area of research seems to remain untapped.

My hope is that this research is beginning to look into a new direction and that

this study will help to push the literature into the 21

century along with the

skateboard culture.

" " 76"

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" " 85"

Appendix A

An Investigation into the Authenticity of Skateboard Companies

Online Survey Consent/Assent Script:

You must be at least 13 years old to complete this survey

Please print a copy of this form for your own records.

If you are under 18 please read this page with a parent or Guardian:

My name is Brandon Gomez, and I am a graduate student at Syracuse University. I am

inviting you to participate in a research study. Involvement in the study is voluntary.

This means that you do not have to do this survey if you do not want to. This sheet will

explain the study to you and please feel free to ask questions about the research if you

have any.

About this study:

I am interested in learning more about what makes a company a “true skateboarding

company.” You will be asked to complete a 30-question survey about skateboard shoe

companies. This will take about 15 minutes of your time. All information will be kept

confidential.

This means that your name will not appear anywhere and your personal answers will not

be linked to your name in any way.

Raffle for prizes:

If you and/or your parents decide to enter an e-mail address at the end of the survey,

you will be entered into a drawing for 9 possible prizes, which include 1 pair of Nike SB

shoes, 1 complete skateboard, 2 skateboard decks, 2 sets of trucks, 2 sets of wheels

and 2 sets of bearings (I estimate that about 300 skateboarders will participate so odds

of winning are estimated at 1:30). This is completely voluntary; you do not have to

enter an e-mail if you don’t want to. When you close or finish the survey there will be a

link to the contest. Your e-mail address will not be linked to your survey. I will contact

the winners at the e-mail address provided for shipping information. If you are selected

as a winner, you will be contacted for shipping information. If you are under 18, you will

be asked for the name and address of a parent or guardian. Any information given will

remain completely confidential; this means no one will know what you write and I will

be the only person to see it. Your e-mail will not be given to anybody else, it will only

be used for the prize raffle.

Benefits of this study:

A benefit is something that is good. The benefit of this research is that you will be

helping us to learn more about the skateboarding culture and the companies in

skateboarding. Many people who do research have not written a lot about

skateboarding, so this will be a very exciting and new study.

" " 86"

Risks of study:

There are minimal risks to this survey. I am simply asking questions about

skateboarding shoe companies. If you do not want to take part, you do not have to and

can close the survey. If you decide to take part and later you don’t want to continue,

you can close the survey at any time. All you have to do is close the internet browser

and the survey will be over.

Confidentiality:

Your responses will be kept completely confidential. This means nobody will ever

see your answers except me. Also there I am not asking for your name or your

parents name so I will not know who you are. Only the researcher will see the

responses from the web survey. At the end of the survey, if you wish to be entered into

the prize drawing, you will be asked for an e-mail address. This is completely voluntary,

and you do not need to use your name. You can use a parent’s e-mail address if your

parents prefer. If you win, you will be contacted at the e-mail address and asked for a

shipping address; you do not need to provide a name for shipping. The list of e-mail

addresses will be destroyed after the drawing is complete.

Decision to quit at any time:

Participation in this survey is voluntary; you can stop at anytime. If you do not want to

continue, you can simply leave the website. If you do not hit the ‘submit’ button at the

end of the survey, your responses will not be counted. You can also skip any questions

that you do not wish to answer, by hitting next. If you skip any questions, you can still

enter the drawing at the end.

Contact Information:

If you have any questions, concerns, complaints about the research,

contact the researcher, Brandon Gomez at:

e-mail: brgomez@syr.edu

phone: 484-716-1118

Research Advisor: Carla Lloyd

e-mail: cvlloyd@syr.edu

phone: 315-443-2305

If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, you have

questions, concerns, or complaints that you wish to address to someone other than the

investigator, if you cannot reach the investigator, or contact the Syracuse University

Institutional Review Board at 315-443-3013.

“If you are between the ages of 13 and 17, by clicking continue and starting this

survey, you and your parent or guardian agree that you understand this page and agree

to be part of this research study.”

" " 87"

Appendix B

Brandon Gomez

IRB #: 10-300

Revised Questionnaire

Scale:

1 – strongly disagree (I disagree a lot)

2 – disagree

3 – slightly disagree (I disagree a little bit)

4 – neutral (I’m not sure)

5 – slightly agree (I agree a little bit)

6 – agree

7 – strongly agree (I agree a lot)

1. Are you a skateboarder/Do you skateboard? Yes/No

2. How long have you been skateboarding? (in years; if less than one round up

to one year)

3. It is important for a skate company to be owned by a skateboarder

4. It is important for a skate company to sponsor small/local events

5. It is important for a skate company to sponsor large/national events like X-

Games, Gravity Games, and the Maloof Money Cup

6. It is important for a skate company to have a good overall team

7. It is important for a skate company to sponsor good skateboarders

8. It is important for a skate company to have advertisements in skateboard

magazines

9. It is important for a skate company to have advertisements on skateboard

websites

10. It is important for a skate company to have a good website

11. It is important for a skate company to have videos and photos on their

website

12. It is important for a skate company to have a good Facebook and/or Twitter

page

13. It is important for a skate company to release full length skate videos

14. It is important for a skate company to have their products available in local

skate shops

15. I have seen NIKE SB to sponsor small/local events

" " 88"

16. I have seen NIKE SB to sponsor large/national events like X-Games, Gravity

Games, and the Maloof Money Cup

17. NIKE SB has a good overall team

18. NIKE SB sponsors good individual skateboarders

19. I have seen NIKE SB advertisements in skateboard magazines

20. I have seen NIKE SB advertisements on skateboard websites

21. NIKE SB has a good website

22. NIKE SB has good videos and photos on their website

23. NIKE SB has a good Facebook and/or Twitter page

24. NIKE SB has released good full length skate videos

25. I can find NIKE SB products in local skate shops

26. I do not like NIKE SB because they are not owned by a skateboarder

27. I have bought NIKE SB shoes before

28. I would buy NIKE SB shoes in the future

29. What is the most you would pay for NIKE SB shoes? _________

30. I would recommend NIKE SB shoes to my friends or other skateboarders

31. Sex: male/female

32. Age (on your last birthday) [if participant is under 13 then results will be

erased and will not be included in data]:

33. State:

34. Additional comments: (open ended)

At this point (or after withdrawal) participant will be provided a link to a separate

page where they can enter an e-mail address for prize drawing:

1. Enter E-mail address for product raffle – completely voluntary and e-mail will not

be linked to individual survey responses – will be contacted for shipping info if

selected - participants under 18 will be asked to secure permission from a

parent/guardian prior and enter the e-mail address of a parent/guardian. Also if

the winner selected is under 18, the name of a parent or guardian will be

requested for shipping purposes.

" " 89"

VITA

NAME OF AUTHOR: Brandon Gomez

PLACE OFBIRTH: Coatesville, Pennsylvania

DATE OF BIRTH: October 25, 1986

UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOL ATTENDED:

Indiana University of Pennsylvania (IUP), Indiana, PA

DEGREE AWARDED:

Bachelor of Science in Communications Media, 2009, IUP

AWARDS AND HONORS:

Dean’s List at Indiana University of Pennsylvania all semesters from

spring 2006 to present

National Collegiate Communication Arts Award, Indiana University of

Pennsylvania in 2006 and 2008.2009

IUP Undergraduate Scholars Forum outstanding paper presentation

award

Provost’s Scholar at Indiana University of Pennsylvania

Recipient of Ronald E. McNair Gradate Fellowship at Syracuse University

2009/2010 academic year

PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE:

Operations Officer – Skateistan, Kabul, Afghanistan; Phnom Penh

Cambodia, January 2012 – present

Executive Assistant and Overall HR Manager - Skateistan, Kabul,

Afghanistan, May 2011 – January 2012

Administrative Assistant in Academic Affairs, Syracuse University, August

2010 to present

Instructional Associate for COM 107 Course, Syracuse University, June

2010 – August 2010

Research Assistant - Blog Mediated Public Relations, Syracuse

University, Summer of 2010

Internship - Center City Film and Video, Philadelphia, PA, May 2009 to

August 2009